OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Landau–Peierls instability

Landau–Peierls instability refers to the phenomenon in which the mean square displacements due to thermal fluctuatuions diverge in the thermodynamic limit and is named after Lev Landau (1937) and Rudolf Peierls (1934). This instability prevails in one-dimensional ordering of atoms/molecules in 3D space such as 1D crystals and smectics and also in two-dimensional ordering in 2D space such as a monomolecular adsorbed filsms at the interface between two isotrophic phases. The divergence is logarthmic, which is rather slow and therefore it is possible to realize substances (such as the smectics) in practice that are subject to Landau–Peierls instability.

## Mathematical description

Consider a one-dimensionally ordered crystal in 3D space. The density function is then given by $\rho =\rho (z)$. Since this is a 1D system, only the displacement $u$ along the $z$-direction due to thermal fluctuations can smooth out the density function; displacements in other two directions are irrelevant. The net change in the free energy due to the fluctuations is given by
    ${\mathcal {F}}=\int (F-F_{0})dV$
where $F_{0}$ is the free energy without fluctuations. Note that ${\mathcal {F}}$ cannot depend on $u$ or be a linear function of $\nabla u$ because the first case corresponds to a simple uniform translation and the second case is unstable. Thus, ${\mathcal {F}}$ must be quadratic in the derivatives of $u$. These are given by
    ${\mathcal {F}}={\frac {C}{2}}\int dV\left[\left({\frac {\partial u}{\partial z}}\right)^{2}+\lambda _{1}{\frac {\partial u}{\partial z}}\left({\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial y^{2}}}\right)+\lambda _{2}\left({\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial y^{2}}}\right)^{2}\right]$
where $C$, $\lambda _{1}$ and $\lambda _{2}$ are material constants; in smectics, where the symmetry $z\mapsto -z$ must be obeyed, the second term has to be set zero, i.e., $\lambda _{1}=0$. In the Fourier space (in a unit volume), the free energy is just
    ${\mathcal {F}}={\frac {1}{(2\pi )^{3}}}\int d^{3}k{\frac {C}{2}}(k_{z}^{2}+\lambda _{1}k_{z}\kappa ^{2}+\lambda _{2}\kappa ^{4})|{\hat {u}}(k)|^{2},\quad \kappa ^{2}=k_{x}^{2}+k_{y}^{2}.$
From the equipartition theorem (each Fourier mode, on average, is allotted an energy equal to $k_{B}T/2$) , we can deduce that
    $\langle |{\hat {u}}(k)|^{2}\rangle ={\frac {k_{B}T}{C(k_{z}^{2}+\lambda _{1}k_{z}\kappa ^{2}+\lambda _{2}\kappa ^{4})}}.$
The mean square displacement is then given by
    $\langle u^{2}(r)\rangle ={\frac {k_{B}T}{(2\pi )^{3}C}}\int _{1/L}^{k_{c}}{\frac {d^{3}k}{k_{z}^{2}+\lambda _{1}k_{z}\kappa ^{2}+\lambda _{2}\kappa ^{4}}}$
where the integral is cut off at a large wavenumber that is comparable to the linear dimension of the element undergoing deformation. In the thermodynamic limit, $L\to \infty$, the integral diverges logarthmically. This means that an element at a particular point is displaced through very large distances and therefore smoothes out the function $\rho (z)$, leaving $\rho =$constant as the only solution and destroying the 1D ordering.
# Billy Fallin

William Gene Fallin (September 9, 1932 – January 4, 2025) was an American politician from the state of Georgia. He served as a Democratic member of the Georgia House of Representatives from 1967 to 1971.

## Life and career

Fallin was born in Thomas County, Georgia, on September 9, 1932, the son of Brady Ernestine née Cason Fallin. The moved to Moultrie, Georgia, when he was a child, and he would spend most of his life there. He attended Georgia Military College, then received a B.A. in history from Mercer University and a J.D. from its Walter F. George School of Law. He served in the U.S. Army during the Korean War, then practiced law for over sixty years. In the 1960s, he was solicitor for Colquitt County, Georgia, resigning in 1967 to take a seat in the Georgia House of Representatives. After two terms in the legislature, he became member and chair of the Colquitt County board of commissioners in 1971, and he held that position for twelve years. In 1976, he was elected president of the Association County Commissioners of Georgia. A political comeback attempt failed in 1988, with Fallin taking 40.6% in the Democratic primary for state representative against incumbent C. J. Powell. He remained active in Moultrie, promoting education, the arts, and historic preservation. He died on January 4, 2025, at the age of 92.
# Imino acid

In organic chemistry, an imino acid is any molecule that contains both imine (>C=NH) and carboxyl (-C(=O)-OH) functional groups.
Imino acids are structurally related to amino acids, which have amino group instead of imine—a difference of single vs double-bond between nitrogen and carbon. The simplest example is dehydroglycine.
D-Amino acid oxidase is an enzyme that is able to convert amino acids into imino acids. Also the direct biosynthetic precursor to the amino acid proline is the imino acid (S)-Δ$^1$-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C).

## Related terminology

Secondary amino acids, amino acids containing a secondary amine group are sometimes named imino acids, though this usage is obsolescent. The only proteinogenic amino acid of this type is proline, although the related non-proteinogenic amino acids hydroxyproline and pipecolic acid have often been included in studies of this class of compounds.
The term imino acid is also the obsolete term for imidic acids, structures containing the -C(=NH)-OH group, and should not be used for them.
# Felix L. Cory

Felix L. Cory was a teacher and state legislator in Mississippi. He represented Adams County, Mississippi in the Mississippi House of Representatives from 1884 to 1886. Chas. D. Foules served with him from the county.
# Spalnoye

Spalnoye (Russian: Спальное) is a village in Sudzhansky District, Kursk Oblast, Russia.

## Geography

The village is located on the river Psyol, about 5.3 kilometres (3.3 mi) from the Russian-Ukrainian border, 88 kilometres (55 mi) southwest of Kursk, 18 kilometres (11 mi) southeast of the district centre — the town of Sudzha, 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) from the centre of the village council — the village of Borki.

## History
### Russian invasion of Ukraine

The settlement came under attack of the Armed Forces of Ukraine in August 2024 as part of the August 2024 Kursk Oblast incursion of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Russian forces recaptured the village by 2025.
# Średniówka, Lublin Voivodeship

Średniówka is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Goraj, within Biłgoraj County, Lublin Voivodeship, in eastern Poland. It lies approximately 7 km (4 mi) east of Goraj, 18 km (11 mi) north of Biłgoraj, and 62 km (39 mi) south of the regional capital Lublin.
# Thomas A. Cotton

Thomas A. Cotton was a state legislator in Mississippi. He represented Noxubee County in the Mississippi House of Representatives in 1874 and 1875.
Historican Eric Foner lists him as P. A. Cotton in Freedom's Lawmakers and documents him as African American, illiterate, and a laborer.
# Świdniczek

Świdniczek is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wólka, within Lublin County, Lublin Voivodeship, in eastern Poland. It lies approximately 6 km (4 mi) east of the regional capital Lublin.
# Alexander H. Curtis

Alexander H. Curtis (1829 – July 20, 1878) was an American politician, he served as a state legislator in the Alabama House of Representatives and the Alabama Senate during the Reconstruction era.

## Early life

Curtis was born 1829, a slave, in Raleigh, North Carolina on E. Haywood's plantation, then was taken to Alabama when ten years old in 1839. While young he worked as a servant and in a general store.

## Life and non political career

As an adult he worked as a barber and in others trades in Marion, Alabama saving for his freedom. By 1859 he had saved enough to be able to purchase his own freedom at the price of $2,000 after-which he left Alabama and moved to New York.
After the Civil War he returned to Alabama and set up again as a barber head of a trade concern.
He continued until 1875 when he was considered "out of business" even though he had been rated as "honest and reliable" by credit assessors.
In 1867 he was one of nine former slaves, known as The Marion 9, that setup the Lincoln School of Marion.
He also was one of the founders of Selma University and was described as an active member of the Second Baptist Church in Marion.

## Reconstruction era political career

Curtis represented Perry County, Alabama at the 1867 Constitutional Convention.
He represented Perry County in the Alabama House of Representatives from 1870 to 1872 and then the Alabama Senate from 1872 to 1874. He and other 1872 Alabama Senators were photographed on the capitol steps. The photograph is held by the Alabama Department of Archives and History. He was the only African-American lawmaker to preside over the Alabama Senate during this era.
He was also one of the county commissioners in 1874 and was a delegate to the state constitutional convention in 1875. He was accused along with Greene S. W. Lewis of being bigoted and attempting to rally the black majority to vote against the constitutional convention.
He was also a delegate to the 1876 Republican National Convention, and the 1878 Radical State Convention.

## Death and legacy

He died Saturday July 20, 1878, after falling from his buggy while travelling the lower Marion road with his companion Nick Stephens. He had been aspiring to run for Congress at the time of his death.
Two of his sons became physicians, William P. Curtis of Saint Louis, Missouri, and James Webb Curtis of Chicago; and his son Thomas Curtis was a dentist in Saint Louis.
# George Cushingberry Jr.

George Cushingberry Jr. (born January 6, 1953) is an American politician from Michigan. Cushingberry was a member of the Detroit City Council and a member of Michigan House of Representatives.

## Early life

On January 6, 1953, Cushingberry was born in Detroit, Michigan. Cushingberry's father was George Cushingberry. Cushingberry's mother was Edna Cushingberry. In 1971, Cushingberry graduated from Detroit Cass Technical High School.

## Education

Cushingberry earned a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in Political Science, Urban Politics, Policy, and Administration from Wayne State University. In 1991 he earned his Juris Doctor from the University of Detroit Mercy School of Law.

## Career

Elected in 1975, Cushingberry became the youngest person to serve in the Michigan State House, where he served until 1982. After leaving the House, he became a member of the Wayne County Board of Commissioners, where he served for sixteen years.
On November 2, 2004, Cushingberry won the election and became a Democratic member of Michigan House of Representatives for District 8. Cushingberry defeated Melvin E. Byrd with 95.69% of the votes.
On August 9, 2005, Cushingberry was charged with two felony counts of perjury for allegedly lying when he signed documents stating he’d met campaign finance requirements in 2004, and one misdemeanor count for failing to file campaign finance statements on time. On April 17, 2007, the charges were dismissed.
On November 7, 2006, as an incumbent, Cushingberry won the election and continued serving District 8. Cushingberry defeated Melvin E. Byrd and Daniel L. Martin with 96.59% of the votes. On November 4, 2008, as an incumbent, Cushingberry won the election and continued serving District 8. Cushingberry defeated Thomas W. Jones with 96.90% of the votes.
After being elected Cushingberry was appointed the Chairman of the Appropriations Committee until 2010. After an unsuccessful run for State Senator, Cushingberry ran for City Council representing District 2 in Northwest Detroit winning by over 50% of the districts voters. Cushingberry was elected President Pro-Tempore of the City Council in 2014 and appointed Chairman of the Budget, Finance and, Audit Committee.
Cushingberry is an associate pastor at Northwest Unity Baptist Church in Detroit. He is a life member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and hosts the "Northwest Unity Prospector Reveals", on radio station WDRJ 1440 AM, Detroit MI from 2:30 - 3:30 every Saturday. He is also a practicing Attorney in the following areas family law, commercial litigation(Business Law), bankruptcy, criminal defense and, owner of The Law Firm of George Cushingberry and Associates.

## Personal life

Cushingberry's wife is Maria Hazel Drew Cushingberry. They have two children.
# Dongnanjiao

Dongnanjiao Island("东南礁") is located in the northeast corner of Zhoushanqundao (Zhoushan Islands),76 km from Shengsi County, and is part of the Shengsi County of Zhoushan city. Dongnanjiao is the baseline point of the Chinese territorial sea.
# GRK Tikveš

GRK Tikvesh (Macedonian: ГРК Тиквеш), formerly known as GRK Lozari, is a handball club from Kavadarci, North Macedonia. Tikves is a member of the VIP Super league.

## History

The Tikvesh Club was established in 1955 by the Tikvesh Sports Association. The first coach was Lazar Lalkov, the initiators of the formation of the club besides Lalkov were also Gjoko Mukaetov and Dobre Stavrov, founders of the handball game in Kavadarci. Tikvesh played their first season in the 1955 Championship when they finished second behind Rabotnichki.
The club was three times champion of Macedonia (1962, 1964, 1972, 1976), three times winner of the Macedonian Cup (1958, 1963 and 1970). Tikves also played in the Second League in the former Federal league when in its first appearance in 1971 placed at the seventh place. Tikves also played in the Inter-Republic League in the 1980–81 season, winning second place.
Notable players from this period were Pane Malinkov, brothers Simon and Jovan Kjurchievi, Jordan Ilkov, brothers Angjushevi, Miodrag Micajkov, Zarkov, Zafirov, the goalkeeper Rizov, Kamchev, Maslarkov.
They competed in the First League, second tier handball league. They won the championship in season 2019-20 and qualified for the VIP Super League. This season they compete in the Top Division.
* EHF Cup After Finishing 4 th in the season 2022-23 of the top Flight Division HC Tikvesh manage to qualify for the EHF Cup competition.

## Home ground

Jasmin Sports Arena is a multi-purpose indoor sports arena located in Kavadarci, Macedonia and seats 3,500 spectators.
The arena is used for basketball by KK Feni Industries.In May 2011, it hosted the Final Four of the Balkan International Basketball League. It has also been used for concerts and handball by GRK Tikveš.

## Accomplishment

       Macedonian Champions
    (4) 1962,1964,1972, 1976
       Cup Winners
    (3) 1958,1963,1970

## Team

    Squad for the 2024–25 season
HC Tikvesh :
Goalkeepers
Aleksandar Stojanoski, Marjan Velkov, Vasko Dimitrov, Blagoj Panov, Kire Petrov, Igor Arsikj
Left Wings
Dimitar Kocev, Darko Kondev, Kostadin Petrov, Dario Kofilovski
Right Wings
Orce Lazov, David Ivanov, Martin Dimovski
Pivots
Pece Gjorgieski, Riste Okardov, Boris Ilievski, Nikola Letikj, Danilo Osadchyi
Left Backs
Jane Jancev, Dusan Medic, Stefan Koloski
Central Backs
Strahinja Simic, Stefan Milkov, Martin Manaskov, Igor Krivokapikj
Right Backs
Vanja Smiljanic, Dejan Gosevski :
# Leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Council (New South Wales)

The Leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Council is an office held in New South Wales by the leader in the New South Wales Legislative Council of the second-largest party in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, the lower house of the Parliament of New South Wales.
| No. | No. | Name | Party | Term of office | Term of office | Tenure |
| | 1 | Sir Henry Manning | United Australia | 16 May 1941 (1941-05-16) | 22 April 1958 (1958-04-22) | 16 years, 341 days |
| | 1 | Sir Henry Manning | Democratic | 16 May 1941 (1941-05-16) | 22 April 1958 (1958-04-22) | 16 years, 341 days |
| | 1 | Sir Henry Manning | Liberal | 16 May 1941 (1941-05-16) | 22 April 1958 (1958-04-22) | 16 years, 341 days |
| | 2 | Hector Clayton | Liberal | 12 April 1960 | 30 October 1962 | 2 years, 201 days |
| | 3 | Arthur Bridges | Liberal | 30 October 1962 | 13 May 1965 | 2 years, 195 days |
| | 4 | Reg Downing | Labor | 13 May 1965 | 4 February 1972 | 6 years, 267 days |
| | 5 | Neville Wran | Labor | 22 February 1972 | 19 October 1973 | 1 year, 239 days |
| | 6 | Leroy Serisier | Labor | 3 December 1973 | 13 May 1976 | 2 years, 162 days |
| | 7 | Sir John Fuller | Country | 14 May 1976 | 1 August 1978 | 2 years, 79 days |
| | 8 | Max Willis | Liberal | 1 August 1978 | 20 October 1981 | 3 years, 80 days |
| | 9 | Lloyd Lange | Liberal | 20 October 1981 | 3 April 1984 | 2 years, 166 days |
| | 10 | Ted Pickering | Liberal | 3 April 1984 | 24 March 1988 | 3 years, 356 days |
| | 11 | Jack Hallam | Labor | 6 April 1988 | 2 May 1991 | 3 years, 26 days |
| | 12 | Michael Egan | Labor | 2 July 1991 | 4 April 1995 | 3 years, 276 days |
| | 13 | John Hannaford | Liberal | 11 April 1995 | 31 March 1999 | 3 years, 354 days |
| | 14 | Mike Gallacher | Liberal | 31 March 1999 | 4 March 2011 | 11 years, 338 days |
| | 15 | Tony Kelly | Labor | 8 April 2011 | 6 June 2011 | 59 days |
| | 16 | Luke Foley | Labor | 14 June 2011 | 8 April 2015 | 3 years, 298 days |
| | 17 | Adam Searle | Labor | 8 April 2015 | 8 June 2021 | 6 years, 61 days |
| | 18 | Penny Sharpe | Labor | 8 June 2021 | 28 March 2023 | 1 year, 293 days |
| | 19 | Damien Tudehope | Liberal | 21 April 2023 | incumbent | 1 year, 323 days |
| Source: Parliament of New South Wales. ||||||||
# Sudan (tribe)

The Sudan (Arabic: السودان) (singular Al Suwaidi Arabic: السويدي) are an Arab tribe of Qahtanite origin in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar and other Gulf states.
At the turn of the 20th century settled Sudan numbered some 405 houses in Abu Dhabi and Batin, 250 houses in Dubai, 300 in Sharjah and 12 in Ajman. The family also settled the islands of the Persian Gulf, with some 20 houses on Abu Musa and 40 families living on Sirri Island. Some 5,000 strong, the tribe was mostly settled in the coastal areas of the Trucial States. The Sudan mostly subsisted on fishing and pearling and did not own date gardens in the inland oases.

## Association with Bani Yas

In Abu Dhabi, the Sudan are closely associated with the Bani Yas and Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan's mother was a Suwaidi. He married the daughter of the Sheikh of the Sudan, Sultan bin Nasir Al Suwaidi. It was with the Sudan that Zayed conceived the idea of establishing a fort at Al Zorah in Ajman, to consolidate and build a bridgehead into the northern emirates. In 1897, a section of the Sudan under Sultan bin Nasser requested permission to settle Al Zorah with the support of Zayed, which was granted by the British Resident.
Alarmed by the scheme, the Ruler of Ajman built a fort at one of the waterways connecting Al Zorah with the mainland (it an island at the time). In 1890 and the Ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Saqr bin Khalid Al Qasimi appealed to the Resident to prevent the establishment of a non-Al Qasimi stronghold in the midst of his territory. This being upheld, to the annoyance of Zayed who had seen Al Zorah as an extension of his claim to the northern coast, the scheme was abandoned and the decision to block it was subsequently upheld after a visit to Al Zorah by Major Percy Cox, the British Political Resident.
The Sudan often played a key role in Abu Dhabi political affairs, with Sheikh Ahmad bin Khalifah Al Suwaidi leading the opposition to Shakhbut bin Sultan as ruler, when this was proposed to the family and leading notables, supporting Hazza bin Sultan instead.
In 1829, the area of Deira, on the opposite side to the creek to Dubai, was settled by some 400 Sudan who had left Sharjah in 1826 following an argument with the ruler, Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi.

## The Sudan in Qatar

Members of the Sudan from Abu Dhabi settled Bida’a on Qatar's eastern coast in 1766. In 1801 the British representative in Muscat, David Seton, suspected the tribe of being involved in piracy and sailed with the Sultan of Muscat in order to bombard Bida’a, but the waters were too shallow to allow his gunboat to come within range.
In February 1841, after the Sudan were suspected of harbouring the pirate Jasim bin Jabir (known as Raqraqi) in Bida'a, a British squadron arrived to punish the headman, Salimayn bin Nasir al-Suwaidi. Upon the British firing a few shots at the town, Salimayn paid a fine in cash and jewellery, and handed over Raqraqi's ship, which was set on fire. In May 1843 Isa bin Tarif, head of the Al Bin Ali tribe and former sheikh of Huwailah, moved to Bida'a and forced the near-bankrupt Sudan to leave Bida'a and settle in Lingah.
# Joshua Selman

Joshua Selman Nimmak (born 25 June 1980, in Langtang North) is a Nigerian gospel preacher, televangelist, and author from Plateau State Nigeria

## Early life and education

Joshua Selman Nimmak was born on June 25, 1980, in Zaria, Kaduna State, a Muslim dominated region in Nigeria. He grew up in a Christian family and developed a passion for spiritual matters from an early age. He received a bachelor's degree in chemical engineering from Ahmadu Bello University.

## Marriage

Selman has chosen not to marry, a decision he has stated he does not regret. In a 2022 video, he said marriage would "deprive him of the time and energy to serve God." He also said that he wanted to "make good use of [his] energy now that [he] has it."
# James Costigan

James Costigan (March 31, 1926 – December 19, 2007) was an American television actor and Emmy Award-winning television screenwriter. His writing credits include the television movies Eleanor and Franklin and Love Among the Ruins.

## Early life

Costigan was born on March 31, 1926, in East Los Angeles, where his parents owned and operated a hardware store. He first achieved some level of success in the 1950s, when he came to write for television anthology series, such as Studio One and Kraft Television Theatre.

## Career

Costigan won his first Emmy for original teleplay in 1959 for Little Moon of Alban, a segment which appeared as part of the Hallmark Hall of Fame. He earned a second Emmy nomination in 1959 for his script adaptation of The Turn of the Screw. He did not win, but Ingrid Bergman won an Emmy for her performance in The Turn of the Screw. He increasingly began writing for the stage as the format of television began to change. His Broadway credits included Baby Want a Kiss, a 1964 comedy which starred Joanne Woodward and Paul Newman.
He returned to screenwriting for television in the early 1970s. His 1970s work included A War of Children, written in 1972, which was about two families, one Roman Catholic and one Protestant, in Northern Ireland, whose long time friendship is threatened by sectarian violence.
He won a second Emmy Award for Love Among the Ruins, a 1975 television movie set in Edwardian England, which starred Katharine Hepburn and Laurence Olivier. His third Emmy win was for Eleanor and Franklin (1976), a two-part, four-hour television drama focusing on the lives of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt.
After the Roosevelt series, many of his subsequent screenplays for television and feature films were written under the name of Ivan Davis. He also began collaborating with other scenarists, including John Huston on the film adaptation of Thornton Wilder's novel Mr. North.

## Death

James Costigan died on December 19, 2007, aged 81, at his home in Bainbridge Island, Washington, of heart failure.