# Kibosho

Kibosho or Kingdom of Kibosho also sometimes referred to as Old Kibosho (Isarile la Kibosho in Kikibosho), (Ufalme wa Kibosho in Swahili) was a historic sovereign Chagga state located in modern-day Kibosho ward in Moshi Rural District of Kilimanjaro Region in Tanzania. Kibosho was situated on Mount Kilimanjaro to the west of the Karanga River. The word Mangi means king in the Chagga languages. Kibosho country's inhabitants spoke Kikibosho, one of seven dialects of the Chagga language groups' West Kilimanjaro language.

## Overview

Kibosho Kingdom was entirely located in the Karanga river basin, located between the Weru Weru and Rau rivers, was the oldest settled part of the Kibosho kingdom and has historically served as its central hub. This mountainous area is characterized by at least thirteen rivers, including the Umbwe and Ngomberi, and is home to the oldest clans and significant settlements known as Kirima Chini and Kirima Juu, which gained recognition beyond Kilimanjaro in the early 19th century.
The Kingdom's history is marked by the migration of a royal clan from the west, influencing local and broader events on Kilimanjaro. Surrounding settlements along the eastern bank of the Weru Weru River, such as Kindi, Narumu, Kombo, and Lyamungo, are linked by ancient pathways and streams. These communities have been shaped by historical events, including the influx of Chagga refugees from Kilema during the late 18th or early 19th century due to raids from Mangi Horombo (Orombo) of Keni. According to Accoridngto Alexandre Le Roy, a French missionary who visited Kibosho in 1890, he described Kibosho country as a place with a series of small hills, which create various plateaus and valleys. Unlike the rugged terrain of Moshi or the distinct unitary structure of Machame, Kibosho features a landscape that predominantly faces south and is well irrigated. The region benefits from a network of irrigation channels, contributing to its careful cultivation.
The area is marked by the presence of blacksmiths’ forges, fields tended by women, and children herding cattle and sheep. Notably, Kibosho is distinguished by its aesthetically maintained banana plantations, which are nurtured using manure from cowsheds, a practice that is relatively unique in the African context.

## Early history

The influence of Kibosho in Kilimajaro can be traced back to the arrival of Yansanya, an ancestor of the Kibosho ruling house, likely in the 18th century. Among the various clans in Kibosho, three are recognized as the oldest settled clans: the Msele-Kiwoso, the Masawe, and the Kulaya.
The Msele-Kiwoso clan is regarded as the oldest, having established itself five generations prior to the arrival of the royal Orio clan. This longstanding presence has led to the veneration of the Msele-Kiwoso. Within the clan, oral traditions recount the lineage of nine generations, tracing back to their first ancestor, Musie. Notable early figures include Ngiai, who was present during the arrival of the royal clan, and Kiwoso, who is associated with more detailed historical accounts.
Kiwoso is believed to have originated from Ukuni, located high in the forests above the old mtaa Uri in the upper Karanga river system. He descended the mountain, bringing livestock and weapons, but notably no bows and arrows. Initially, Kiwoso settled near the Isie river, a tributary of the Karanga, and gradually established the clan's permanent residence in Uri, where he encountered no prior inhabitants.
The Masawe and Kulaya clans settled in Kibosho before the royal clan, with the Masawe arriving later than the Msele-Kiwoso clan. The Masawe clan recalls seven generations back to its first ancestor, Masawe, who came from Kibo and initially settled near mtaa Maua at Mashe, close to the Kyumbura river. He brought bananas, yams, cattle, and goats, relying initially on hunting and wild vegetables. His descendants eventually moved down the mountainside to the lower part of mtaa Maua.
The Kulaya clan remembers five generations leading to its first ancestor, Kulaya, who is said to have descended from the skies in Mkola, mtaa Uchau, west of the Isie river. Kulaya, accompanied by his wife and livestock, established the first market in Uchau, selling eleusine and vegetables. Notably, Kulaya had a small tail, which was not passed on to his son, Mono-o-Ruwa, who later befriended the first ancestor of the royal clan.
The three oldest clans of Kibosho—the Msele-Kiwoso, Masawe, and Kulaya—do not specify a particular direction from which they originated, a detail that has been forgotten over time, unlike other clans in Kibosho that trace their origins from the east and west. The Msele-Kiwoso clan, in particular, is notable for its long-standing presence in its original location in old mtaa Uri, near the Isie river, since the time of its ancestor, Kiwoso, from whom the chiefdom derives its name.
In the mid-19th century, European travelers referred to the entire chiefdom as Lambongo or Lambungu (anglicized to Lyamungo), likely due to its location along caravan routes or its association with the royal Orio clan, which resided in the western portion before moving to the center of the chiefdom. The name Kibosho, derived from Kiwoso, was widely recognized in the central region and symbolized the historical significance of the Msele-Kiwoso clan.
In the early 1890s, Mangi Marealle of Marangu noted to German explorer Karl Peters that while other clans migrated to Kilimanjaro from areas such as Ukamba and Usambara, the Wakibosho had always inhabited the mountain. The Orio clan's arrival marked a pivotal moment in Kibosho's history. Coming from the far west, the Orio clan gradually crossed Kilimanjaro and established itself in Kibosho, quickly gaining recognition as the royal ruling clan due to its wealth and resources.

### Origins and succesion of the ruling clan of Kibosho

The Orio clan's arrival in Kibosho was a pivotal event, as they quickly became recognized as the royal ruling clan due to their wealth. Led by their first ancestor, Yansanya, the clan migrated from the far west across Kilimanjaro, starting from Olmulelia in east Arusha along the Mbatian route. Yansanya initially settled in Siha before moving eastward along the high top track, establishing temporary residences at Kinduchi, Owaa, Marawa, and Nchona, all of which became significant shrines. Upon reaching Uchau, he encountered the Kulaya clan, where he was welcomed by Mono-o-Ruwa.
Accompanied by many wives, children, and livestock, Yansanya's wealth and resources facilitated his acceptance as leader among the local clans. His leadership faced little opposition, aided by his diplomatic skills and the availability of land. While Yansanya established his influence, two groups of settlements remained outside his immediate impact: the Kindi, Kombo, and Narumu clans to the west, and the Masawe and Kwai clans in the upper part of Lyamungo. To the east lay Mweka, the oldest chiefdom, ruled by the Tarimo clan.
Yansanya's leadership was accepted by later settlers from both the west and east, leading to the establishment of the Orio dynasty of Kibosho that has continued through seventeen reigns from the 18th century to the present.

## Kings of Kibosho

The succession of the Orio dynasty and Kings of Kibosho;
* Yasanya (founder of the ruling dynasty); established the kingdom in the early 18th century
* Orio (son of Yansanya); Rules in the mid 18th century.
* Kimboka (son of Yansanya); rules in the late 18th century
* Iringo (son of Orio); rules in the late 18th century
* Iweri (son of Kimboka) rules in the late 18th century
* Kirenga (son of Iweri); rules in the early 19th century during Mangi Rengua's reign in Machame. He establishes another settlement called Kirima Juu west of Karanga River.
* Kashenge (son of Irenga); rules in the early 19th century considered as one of the greatest kings in Kibosho.He also rules during Mangi Rengua's reign in Machame when Rengua slaughters the young initiatiates at Kinduchi.
* Tatua (son of Kashenge); rules in 1861 as recorded by von der Dicken, h eis considered a warrior King. He sacked Uru amongst many Chagga countries and was also feared by Mangi Ndesserua of Machame.He retires in 1862 to his son Ngaluma.
* Ngaluma (Son of Tatuta); rules in 1862 for a few years. He is remeberbeing being ill-health and not sacking any other settlements.
* Lokila (son of Tatuta); also considered one of the greatest kings in Kibosho. He rules during the late 1860s to early 1870s. He is one of the few kings that physically went on raids. He sacked Uru and created the tradition of scaking Uru for slaves to work in Kibosho and also to sell to the Arab and Swahili caravans. He made Mwika and Uru his vassal states with annual tributes from them. He deposed existing chiefs in raided areas with his own Orio clan members. He is remembered fro deafeating Mangi Rindi of Moshi and became the most power king in Kilimajaro.
* Mamka (wife of Lokila); first female ruler and regent of Kibosho. remembered as competent head of state due to her remembered and respected intelligence. She was from the oldest clan in Kibosho, the Msele-Kiwoso. She is said to have ruled for three years.
* Sina (son of Kisaro); considered the greatest ruler of Kibosho, ruled from 1870s to 1897
* Molelia (son of Sina); ruled 1897–1900, hanged by the German authority at the Great Hanging at Old Moshi in 1900.
* Sianga (son of Kisaro); ruled 1900-ca.1911
* Malamya (son of Sianga); ruled 1911-197 and deported to Kisamayo byt the British colonizers in 1917 and then returned and reinstated as mangi of Siha in 1927.
* Barnabas Ngowi (Moshi Boma clerk); ruled Kibosho for a few months undr British instructions.
* Ngulisho (Son of Sina); ruled 1917–1946
* Alex (Son of Ngulisho); last Kibosho King, ruled from 1946 to 1962.

## Kibosho chiefdoms and colonies

The chiefs of the mitaa, appointed by the king, were integral to a centralized administrative system. While these chiefs were answerable to the king, their roles were influenced by their ties to local lineages, which sometimes led to political competition. In response, the royal lineage implemented measures to address these rivalries.
In their functions, the chiefs managed local courts, supervised corvée labor, and handled local tax collection. This structure enabled effective local governance while maintaining loyalty to the central authority of the king.
The following is a list of Kibosho colonial possessions over its 300-year history, along with major chiefdoms (Mitaa). The communities are grouped between the Rau River to the east and the Weru Weru River to the west.
* Chiefdom of Lyamungo; also known as Lambungu or Lyamungo, is named after its western area near Weru Weru. This name likely reflects its position on a caravan route or its historical connection to the royal Orio clan of Kibosho, which previously lived there before moving to the chiefdom's center in Owoo. When Mangi Horombo began to raid in the late 1700s, it served as a haven for a significant number of immigrants from the Kingdom of Kilema. After staying for a while, they returned home.
* Chiefdom of Narumu; despite being under the Kingdom of Kibosho. The dialects and traditions of the chiefdom are more similar to those of the western Kingdom of Machame. The pottery produced in the chiefdom is well-known.
* Chiefdom of Umbwe Chini; this chiefdom is where Nassua and Shangali sought refuge from Mangi Sina.
* Chiefdom of Kombo; during its time as a colony, Kombo was forced to adopt the customs and language of the Kibosho. Also in the late 1700s, when Mangi Horombo raided, and as a haven for a significant number of immigrants from the Kingdom of Kilema. They spend some time there before going back home.
* Chiefdom of Maro; ancestral home to the ruling Olutu and Malya clans that Mangi Sina almost wiped out as they saw them as rivals in the 1870s.
* Chiefdom of Uchau; The Kulaya clan originates from their first ancestor, Kulaya, who is believed to have descended from the sky at Mkola in mtaa Uchau of Kibosho. Accompanyied by his wife and livestock, Kulaya founded the area's first market, selling grains and vegetables. He was known for a small tail, which his son, Mono-o-Ruwa, did not inherit. Mono-o-Ruwa later befriended the first ancestor of the royal clan. Yansanya also settles here at Nchona from Manushi.
* Chiefdom of Utaruni; home to Mangi Sina, where he moved to Maua during the 1870s.
* Chiefdom of Maua; The Massawe clan initially settled in the chiefdom in the village of Mashe, which has a pond in the Kyumbura River. According to legend, Massawe brought his wife, goats, cattle, yams, bananas, and masale with him, as well as tiny spears devoid of bows or arrows. His descendants eventually relocated to Maua's southern region, close to the Karanga River.
* Chiefdom of Nsinga; home of the Shuo (Shio) clan, who came from the east to settle there.
* Chiefdom of Sungu home of the Chuwa clan, also one of the first places Yansanya settled before moving to Kirima Juu.
* Chiefdom of Uri; As one of the primary settlements of Msele-Kiwoso, who initially came from Ukumi in Kibo, it is regarded as one of the oldest settlements in Kibosho.
* Chiefdom of Mweka ; the oldest chiefdoms in the area. Mweka was governed by a chief from the Tarimo clan, whose first ancestor, Ntesha, is believed to have originated from the east, possibly the Kamba plains. Ntesha gradually traversed the Uru region before settling in Mweka, where he established the ruling house of the clan.
* Chiefdom of Kirima Juu; considered one of the leading chiefdoms of Kibosho, was established by Mangi Kirenga as the population of Kirima Chini increased.
* Chiefdom of Kirima Chini; located south of Kirima Juu, was also one of the leading chiefdoms of Kibosho with its capital, Nchona, where Yansanya lived, bore his children, and died there. Mrenyi, son of Yansanya, built extensive trenches around the chiefdom to protect it from raids from the Warusha.
* Chiefdom of Manushi; Yansanya, the first ancestor to the royal Orioc clan, settles here at the village of Marawa after staying in Kinduchi.
* Kibosho Colony of Uru juu (Shimbwe); Eventually united with Uru chini to become a Unified kingdom in the 20th century.
* Kibosho Colony of Uru Chini (Kimanganuni); United with Uru Juu to become a separate kingdom in the 20th century. Kimanganuni becomes the center of the Uru Kingdom.
* Kibosho Colony of Kindi; Lost a lot of its residents to Arusha Juu (modern-day Arusha) fleeing Mangi Lokila and settled there. During its time as a colony, Kindi was forced into assassinating Kibosho cultures and languages.
* Kinduchi; a major settlement located in Lyamungo Chiefdom where the ancestor of the royal clan Yansanya first settled, coming from Siha in the west. This settlement is also the location of Mangi Sina's infamous young initiates massacre in the 19th century.

## Kibosho's golden age

Following the visit of Baron von der Decken to Kilimanjaro in 1861–62, the Kingdom of Kibosho experienced a period of significant growth in power. The rulers of Kibosho engaged with Swahili caravans and elephant hunters, maintaining connections with coastal cities and sending their own emissaries to Zanzibar. Despite these interactions with Arab traders, the chiefdom had relatively limited contact with Europeans.
Among the leading kingdoms of Kilimanjaro in the 19th century, Kibosho was unique in that its prominence was least influenced by European involvement. This context adds depth to an oral tradition in Kibosho, which recounts that the first white man, likely the missionary Johannes Rebmann, passed through the region during the reign of Kashenge. He was affectionately referred to as "Pololo," meaning "Peaceful," due to his non-disruptive presence.
In the 1880s, Mangi Sina of Kibosho was the most powerful ruler on Kilimanjaro, instilling fear and jealousy among other chiefdoms. This prompted rival leaders to form temporary alliances against him, fostering a sense of unity among them while countering Sina's influence. These chiefs collaborated to mislead European visitors about Kibosho's true power, fearing that recognition of Sina's strength would enhance his prestige.
Another significant figure was Mangi Rindi of Moshi, who, like Sina, employed shrewd diplomacy to secure external support against Kibosho. From 1862 onward, Rindi sought alliances with the Warush, Swahili traders, and Europeans, successfully portraying himself as the "King of all Jagga" while diverting European attention away from Kibosho. The occupying Germans and Sina engaged in the Battle of Kibosho in 1891, ending with German victory thus ushering a period of steady decline of Kibosho. By the late 19th century, notable Mangis included Sina, Rindi, and Marealle of Marangu, with Marealle gaining power largely due to his alliance with the German government.

## Impact of the hanging of Mangi Molelia

The hanging of Molelia in 1900 was a devastating event for the Kibosho Kingdom, which had already suffered the poisoning of their King Sina in 1897. Mangi Marealle of Marangu orchestrated these events, leading to significant losses for Kibosho, including many capable leaders. The executions evoked deep sorrow among the Kibosho people, who blamed Marealle for his role.
As a result of these actions, Kibosho's power diminished significantly, with Marealle achieving a personal triumph over the chiefdom. Sianga, who assisted Marealle, was appointed chief of Kibosho, further shifting the balance of power. Neighboring chiefdoms, including Marangu, Machame, and Uru, benefited from Kibosho's decline.
From the German government's perspective, this situation allowed them to manage a weaker chief in Kibosho. However, Captain Johannes's mass hangings are regarded by the Chagga as one of the most horrific acts in Kilimanjaro's history. While blame fell mainly on Marealle, Captain Johannes ultimately bore responsibility for the events and the subsequent appointment of Sianga, which served to deflect Kibosho's anger away from the colonial authorities.

## Decline

After 1900, the Kibosho chiefdom entered a period of decline, marked by a significant loss of influence and resources. Sianga, appointed chief under duress, faced challenges throughout his reign. One immediate consequence of Kibosho's diminished status was the seizure of its substantial cattle wealth, previously amassed by chiefs Sina and Molelia, which was appropriated by those farming on behalf of Kibosho in neighboring Machame and Uru.
In accordance with Chagga customs, Sianga confiscated cattle and assets from Molelia's lineage upon his ascension. Captain Johannes had mandated that Sianga deliver any supporters of Molelia, or preferably their hearts, as a condition of his appointment. Additionally, he ordered the destruction of the chief's fortifications in Kibosho, symbolizing the chiefdom's reduced stature. In March 1900, Lieutenant Merker oversaw the burning of the chief's residence, further signaling the decline.
The mood in Kibosho was one of mourning, and the relationship between the community and their new chief, as well as the German authorities in Moshi, was strained. A notable incident occurred when Sianga attempted to transport three large elephant tusks, six bulls, 73 guns, and 21 cases of powder to the Moshi Boma but could not find any Kibosho residents willing to accompany him. Ultimately, he sought assistance from the local mission, which provided him with an escort of their own Chagga personnel.

## Legacy

Kibosho, once a leading chiefdom on Kilimanjaro with a population of approximately 30,000 and abundant agricultural resources, was largely overlooked by colonial authorities. The British administration's neglect is considered one of its most significant oversights on the mountain, as no efforts were made to harness the potential of the Kibosho people, who remained largely untouched by modernization compared to other regions.
Historically, this neglect reflects Kibosho's 19th-century interactions with Europeans, with the only consistent engagement coming from the Roman Catholic mission established in 1893. The Kibosho community's understanding of European life has been primarily shaped by the efforts of the Catholic Fathers and nuns. This influence has resulted in a unique cultural synthesis of paganism and Catholicism, often manifesting in conflict or blending within the community.
In contrast to other Catholic-influenced regions on Kilimanjaro, such as Uru and Kilema, Kibosho's dense population and rich heritage have created a more intense mixture of beliefs. By 1960, nearly every household in Kibosho included a young Catholic alongside pagan family members, and Catholics held a majority on the local area council.
Kibosho is noted for its fertility and has a history of skilled cultivation, evident even in the 19th century when its agricultural practices surpassed those of many other Chagga chiefdoms. The people of Kibosho are recognized for their intelligence and pride in their cultural heritage.