# Simone Weil

Simone Adolphine Weil (/veɪ/ VAY; French:; 3 February 1909 – 24 August 1943) was a French philosopher, mystic and political activist. Despite her short life, her ideas concerning religion, spirituality, and politics have remained widely influential in contemporary philosophy.
She was born in Paris to an Alsatian Jewish family. Her elder brother, André, would later become a renowned mathematician. After her graduation from formal education, Weil became a teacher. She taught intermittently throughout the 1930s, taking several breaks because of poor health and in order to devote herself to political activism. She assisted in the trade union movement, taking the side of the anarchists known as the Durruti Column in the Spanish Civil War. She worked for more than a year as a labourer, mostly in car factories, so that she could better understand the working class.
Weil became increasingly religious and inclined towards mysticism as her life progressed. She wrote throughout her life, although most of her writings did not attract much attention until after her death. In the 1950s and '60s, her work became famous in continental Europe and throughout the English-speaking world. Her philosophy and theological thought has continued to be the subject of extensive scholarship across a wide range of fields, covering politics, society, feminism, science, education, and classics.

## Early life

Weil was born in her parents' apartment in Paris on 3 February 1909, the daughter of Bernard Weil (1872–1955), a medical doctor from an agnostic Alsatian Jewish background, who moved to Paris after the German annexation of Alsace–Lorraine and Salomea "Selma" Reinherz (1879–1965), who was born into a Jewish family in Rostov-on-Don and raised in Belgium. According to Osmo Pekonen, "the family name Weil came to be when many Levis in the Napoleonic era changed their names this way, by anagram." Weil was a healthy baby for her first six months, but then suffered a severe attack of appendicitis; thereafter, she struggled with poor health throughout her life. Weil's parents were fairly affluent and raised their children in an attentive and supportive atmosphere. She was the younger of her parents' two children. Her brother was mathematician André Weil (1906–1998), with whom she would always enjoy a close relationship.
Weil was distressed by her father having to leave home for several years after being drafted to serve in the First World War. Eva Fogelman, Robert Coles and several other scholars believe that this experience may have contributed to the exceptionally strong altruism which Weil displayed throughout her life. For example, a young Weil sent her share of sugar and chocolate to soldiers fighting at the front. When Weil was 10 she joined striking workers chanting L'Internationale marching on the street below her apartment. When visiting a resort with her family and learning of the wages of the workers she encouraged the workers to unionize.
From her childhood home, Weil acquired an obsession with cleanliness; in her later life she would sometimes speak of her "disgustingness" and think that others would see her this way, even though in her youth she had been considered highly attractive. Weil was generally highly affectionate, but she almost always avoided any form of physical contact, even with female friends.
Weil's mother stated that her daughter much preferred boys to girls and that she always did her best to teach her daughter what she believed were masculine virtues. According to her friend and biographer, Simone Pétrement, Weil decided early in life that she would need to adopt masculine qualities and sacrifice opportunities for love affairs in order to fully pursue her vocation to improve social conditions for the disadvantaged. From her late teenage years, Weil would generally disguise her "fragile beauty" by adopting a masculine appearance, hardly ever using makeup and often wearing men's clothes. Both Weil's parents referred to her as “our son number two,” at the request of Weil and in letters to her parents while a student, she used the masculine form of French participles and signed her name the masculine "Simon".

## Academic studies

Weil was a precocious student and was proficient in Ancient Greek by age 12. She later learned Sanskrit so that she could read the Bhagavad Gita in the original.
As a teenager, Weil studied at the Lycée Henri IV under the tutelage of her admired teacher Émile Chartier, more commonly known as "Alain".
Weil attracted much attention at the Lycée Henri IV with her radical opinions and actions such as organising against the military draft. For these reasons she was called the "Red Virgin", and even "The Martian" by her mentor. Weil gained a reputation for her strict devotion to ethics, with classmates referring to her as the "categorical imperative in skirts". Officials at the school were outraged by her indifference to clothing, her refusal to participate in their traditions, and her ignoring a rule banning women from smoking with male students, for which she was suspended.
At ENS, Weil briefly met Simone de Beauvoir, and their meeting led to disagreement. Weil stated that, "one thing alone mattered in the world today: the revolution that would feed all people on earth," with a young Beauvoir replying that the point of life was to find meaning, not happiness. Weil cut her off, stating that, "it's easy to see you've never gone hungry".
Weil finished first in the exam for the certificate of "General Philosophy and Logic" with Simone de Beauvoir finishing second. In 1931 Weil earned her DES (diplôme d'études supérieures [fr], roughly equivalent to an M.A.), with a thesis titled, "Science et perception dans Descartes" ("Science and Perception in Descartes"). She received her agrégation that same year.

## Work and political activism

She often became involved in political action out of sympathy with the working class. In 1915, when she was only six years old, she refused sugar in solidarity with the troops entrenched along the Western Front. In 1919, at 10 years of age, she declared herself a Bolshevik. In her late teens, she became involved in the workers' movement. She wrote political tracts, marched in demonstrations and advocated workers' rights. At this time, she was a Marxist, pacifist and trade unionist.

### Teaching in Le Puy

While teaching in Le Puy, she became involved in local political activity, supporting local striking workers underpaid by the City Council. Weil joined protest marches with them and even shared wine with them, facing criticism from local elites and an antisemitic attack in a local paper. When the school director called Weil in for questioning, students and coworkers rallied behind her and ultimately the city council raised the pay of the workers. Weil often held classes outdoors, often refused to share grades with school leadership, and is said to have created a "family atmosphere". She also traveled weekly to Saint-Étienne to teach workers French literature, believing literature could be a tool for revolution and give workers ownership over their heritage and revolution.

### Factory work and travels

Weil began to feel her work was too narrow and elite, telling her students it was an error to "reason in place of finding out" and that philosophy was a matter of action based in truth and that truth must be based in something (something lived or experienced). This led Weil to leave Le Puy to work in factories and perform the repetitive, machine-like work that underlay her definition of le malheur (affliction), saying that workers were reduced to a machine-like existence, where they could not consider rebellion.
Weil never formally joined the French Communist Party, and in her twenties she became increasingly critical of Marxism. According to Pétrement, she was one of the first to identify a new form of oppression not anticipated by Marx, where élite bureaucrats could make life just as miserable for ordinary people as did the most exploitative capitalists. Weil critiqued Marxist theorists, stating "they themselves have never been cogs in the machinery of factory". Weil also doubted aspects of revolution, stating revolution is a word for "which you kill, for which you die, for which you send the laboring masses to their death, but which does not possess any content". Weil felt oppression was not limited to any particular division of labor, but flows from la puissance or power, which affects all people.
In 1932, Weil visited Germany to help Marxist activists, who were at the time considered to be the strongest and best organised communists in Western Europe, but Weil considered them no match for the up-and-coming fascists. When she returned to France, her political friends there dismissed her fears, thinking Germany would continue to be controlled by the centrists or by those to the left. After Hitler rose to power in the beginning of 1933, Weil spent much of her time trying to help German communists fleeing his regime. Weil would sometimes publish articles about social and economic issues, including "Oppression and Liberty," as well as numerous short articles for trade union journals. This work criticised popular Marxist thought and gave a pessimistic account of the limits of both capitalism and socialism. The work however uses a Marxist method of analysis: paying attention to oppression, critiquing Weil's own position as an intellectual, and advances both manual labor and theory and practice. Leon Trotsky personally responded to several of her articles, attacking both her ideas and her as a person. However, according to Pétrement, he was influenced by some of Weil's thought.
In 1933, Weil was dismissed from a teaching job in Auxerre and transferred to Roanne. Weil participated in the French general strike of 1933, called to protest against unemployment and wage cuts. The following year, she took a 12-month leave of absence from her teaching position to work incognito as a labourer in two factories, one owned by Alstom and one by Renault, believing that this experience would allow her to connect with the working class.
In 1935, she began teaching in Bourges and started Entre Nous, a journal that was produced and written by factory workers. Weil donated most of her income to political causes and charitable endeavours.

### Participation in Spanish Civil War

Weil participated in the 1936 Paris factory occupations and planned on returning to factory work In 1936, but became focused on the Spanish Civil War. Despite her professed pacifism, she travelled to Spain to join the Republican faction. She identified as an anarchist and sought out the anti-fascist commander Julián Gorkin, asking to be sent on a mission as a covert agent to rescue the prisoner Joaquín Maurín. Gorkin refused, saying Weil would be sacrificing herself for nothing, since it was highly unlikely that she could pass as a Spaniard. Weil replied that she had "every right" to sacrifice herself if she chose, but after arguing for more than an hour, she was unable to convince Gorkin to give her the assignment. Instead she joined the anarchist Durruti Column of the French-speaking Sébastien Faure Century, which specialised in high-risk "commando"-style engagements.
As she was extremely nearsighted, Weil was a very poor shot. Her comrades tried to avoid taking her on missions, though she did sometimes insist. Her only direct participation in combat was to shoot with her rifle at a bomber during an air raid; in a second raid, she tried to operate the group's heavy machine gun, but her comrades prevented her, as they thought it would be best for someone less clumsy and near-sighted to use the weapon. After being with the group for a few weeks, she burnt herself over a cooking fire.
She was forced to leave the unit and was met by her parents, who had followed her to Spain. They helped her leave the country, to recuperate in Assisi. About a month after Weil departed, her former unit was nearly wiped out at an engagement in Perdiguera in October 1936, with every woman in the group being killed. During her stay in the Aragon front, Weil sent some chronicles to the French publication Le Libertaire. On returning to Paris, she continued to write essays on labour, on management, war and peace.
Weil was distressed by the Republican killings in eastern Spain, particularly when a fifteen-year-old Falangist was executed after he had been taken prisoner. Durruti had spent an hour trying to persuade him to change his political position before giving him until the next day to decide. Weil was deeply concerned by the intoxication of war, where humans learn they can kill without punishment, stating "I was horrified, but not surprised by the war crimes. I felt the possibility of doing the same - and it's precisely because I felt I had that potential that I was horrified."

### Marseille

After the rise of Nazi Germany, Weil renounced pacifism. She said that, "non-violence is good only if it's effective," and she became committed to fighting the Nazi regime, even if it required force. After German attacks on France, Weil left Paris with her family and fled to Marseille. Weil began the risky work of delivering the Cahiers du témoignage, a resistance paper. The resistance group of which Weil was part was infiltrated by informants, and Weil was questioned by the police. When the police threatened to jail her “with the whores” if she did not give them information, Weil stated she would welcome the invitation to be jailed. Weil was ultimately never arrested. Marseille is also where Weil would soon develop significant religious relationships, receiving spiritual direction from Fr. Joseph-Marie Perrin, a Dominican Friar. Weil met the French Catholic author Gustave Thibon, who owned a farm in the Ardéche region where Weil would later work the grape harvest. Thibon later edited some of her work, helping to draw attention to her spiritually related thought in the English-speaking world. Weil encouraged her parents to buy a farm in the Ardèche where they could sustain themselves and work, but Weil's family thought it safer to plan to move to the United States.

## Encounters with mysticism

Weil was born into a secular household and raised in "complete agnosticism". As a teenager, she considered the existence of God for herself and decided nothing could be known either way. In her Spiritual Autobiography, however, Weil records that she always had a Christian outlook, taking to heart from her earliest childhood the idea of loving one's neighbour.
Weil was attracted to the Christian faith beginning in 1935, when she had the first of three pivotal religious experiences: being moved by the beauty of villagers singing hymns in a procession she stumbled across while on holiday to Portugal (in Póvoa de Varzim). Weil the later wrote "the conviction was suddenly borne in upon her that Christianity is pre-eminently the religion of slaves, that slaves cannot help belonging to it, and she among others."
While in Assisi during the spring of 1937, Weil experienced a religious ecstasy in the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli—the same church in which Saint Francis of Assisi had prayed. She was led to pray for the first time in her life as Lawrence S. Cunningham relates:
   Below the town is the beautiful church and convent of San Damiano where Saint Clare once lived. Near that spot is the place purported to be where Saint Francis composed the larger part of his "Canticle of Brother Sun". Below the town in the valley is the ugliest church in the entire environs: the massive baroque basilica of Saint Mary of the Angels, finished in the seventeenth century and rebuilt in the nineteenth century, which houses a rare treasure: a tiny Romanesque chapel that stood in the days of Saint Francis—the "Little Portion" where he would gather his brethren. It was in that tiny chapel that the great mystic Simone Weil first felt compelled to kneel down and pray.
Weil had a third, more powerful, revelation a year later while reciting George Herbert's poem Love III, after which "Christ himself came down and took possession of me", and, from 1938 on, her writings became more mystical and spiritual, while retaining their focus on social and political issues. In 1938 Weil visited the Benedictine Solesmes Abbey and while suffering from headaches she found pure joy in Gregorian chant that she felt the "possibility of living divine love in the midst of affliction".
She was attracted to Catholicism, but declined to be baptized at that time, preferring to remain outside due to "the love of those things that are outside Christianity". While deeply religious, Weil was skeptical of the Church and dogma as an institution stating "I have not the slightest love for the Church in the strict sense of the word" and was appalled by the concept of Anathema Sit as she refused to separate herself from unbelievers. Weil felt that humility is incompatible with belonging to a social group "chosen by God" no matter if that group is a nation or a Church.
Weil did not limit her curiosity to Christianity. She was interested in other religious traditions—especially the Greek and Egyptian mysteries; Hinduism (especially the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita); and Mahayana Buddhism. She believed that all these and other traditions contained elements of genuine revelation, writing:
   Greece, Egypt, ancient India, the beauty of the world, the pure and authentic reflection of this beauty in art and science...these things have done as much as the visibly Christian ones to deliver me into Christ's hands as his captive. I think I might even say more.
Nevertheless, Weil was opposed to religious syncretism, claiming that it effaced the particularity of the individual traditions:
   Each religion is alone true, that is to say, that at the moment we are thinking of it we must bring as much attention to bear on it as if there were nothing else ... A "synthesis" of religion implies a lower quality of attention.

## Later years

In 1942, Weil travelled to the United States with her family. She had been reluctant to leave France, but agreed to do so as she wanted to see her parents to safety and knew they would not leave without her. She was also encouraged by the fact that it would be relatively easy for her to reach Britain from the United States, where she could join the French Resistance. She had hopes of being sent back to France as a covert agent.
Older biographies suggest Weil made no further progress in achieving her desire to return to France as an agent—she was limited to desk work in London analyzing reports from resistance movements, although this did give her time to write one of her largest and best known works: The Need for Roots. During this time Weil would also write Draft for a Statement of Human Obligations and Note on the General Suppression of Political Parties.
Yet there is now evidence that Weil was recruited by the Special Operations Executive, with a view to sending her back to France as a clandestine wireless operator. In May 1943, preparations were underway to send her to Thame Park in Oxfordshire for training, but the plan was cancelled soon after, as her failing health became known.
Weil wrote furiously during this period sending a plethora of proposals though she was frustrated by feeling she was too safe and not doing enough to address the suffering. De Gaulle rejected her plans and forces were not willing to send her back to France to join the resistance more directly.
The rigorous work routine she assumed soon took a heavy toll. Weil was found slumped on the floor of her apartment, emaciated and exhausted. In 1943, Weil was diagnosed with tuberculosis and instructed to rest and eat well. However, she refused special treatment because of her long-standing political idealism and her detachment from material things. Instead, she limited her intake to what she believed residents of German-occupied France ate. She most likely ate even less, as she refused on most occasions. It is possible that she was baptized during this period. Her condition quickly deteriorated and she was moved to a sanatorium at Grosvenor Hall in Ashford, Kent.

## Death

After a lifetime of battling illness and frailty, Weil died in August 1943 from cardiac failure at the age of 34. The coroner's report said that "the deceased did kill and slay herself by refusing to eat whilst the balance of her mind was disturbed".
The exact cause of her death remains a subject of debate. Some claim that her refusal to eat came from her desire to express some form of solidarity toward the victims of the war. Others think that Weil's self-starvation occurred after her study of Arthur Schopenhauer. In his chapters on Christian saintly asceticism and salvation, Schopenhauer had described self-starvation as a preferred method of self-denial. However, Simone Pétrement, one of Weil's first and most significant biographers, regards the coroner's report as simply mistaken. Basing her opinion on letters written by the personnel of the sanatorium at which Simone Weil was treated, Pétrement affirms that Weil asked for food on different occasions while she was hospitalized and even ate a little bit a few days before her death; according to her, it was, in fact, Weil's poor health condition that eventually made her unable to eat.
Weil's first English biographer, Richard Rees, offers several possible explanations for her death, citing her compassion for the suffering of her countrymen in occupied France and her love for and close imitation of Christ. Rees sums up by saying: "As for her death, whatever explanation one may give of it will amount in the end to saying that she died of love."

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### Absence

Absence is the key image for her metaphysics, cosmology, cosmogony, and theodicy. She believed that God created by an act of self-delimitation—in other words, she argued that because God is conceived as utter fullness, a perfect being, no creature can exist except where God is not. Thus, creation occurred only when God withdrew in part. This idea mirrors tzimtzum, a central notion in the Jewish Kabbalah creation narrative.
This is, for Weil, an original kenosis ("emptiness") preceding the corrective kenosis of Christ's incarnation. Thus, according to her, humans are born in a damned position, not because of original sin, but because to be created at all they must be what God is not; in other words, they must be inherently "unholy" in some sense. This idea fits more broadly into apophatic theology.
This notion of creation is a cornerstone of her theodicy, for if creation is conceived this way—as necessarily entailing evil—then there is no problem of the entrance of evil into a perfect world. Nor does the presence of evil constitute a limitation of God's omnipotence under Weil's notion; according to her, evil is present not because God could not create a perfect world, but because the act of "creation" in its very essence implies the impossibility of perfection.
However, this explanation of the essentiality of evil does not imply that humans are simply, originally, and continually doomed; on the contrary, Weil claims that "evil is the form which God's mercy takes in this world". Weil believed that evil, and its consequent affliction, serve the role of driving humans towards God, writing, "The extreme affliction which overtakes human beings does not create human misery, it merely reveals it."

### Affliction

Weil developed the concept of "affliction" (French: malheur) while working in factories with workers reduced to a machine-like existence where they could not consider real thought or rebellion with Weil stating "thought flies from affliction as promptly and irresistibly as an animal flees from death". Weil found this force too inhumane stating "affliction constrains a man to ask continually 'why' - the question to which there is essentially no reply" and nothing in the world can rob us of the power to say 'I' except for extreme affliction".
According to her, only some souls are capable of experiencing the full depth of affliction—the same souls that are also most able to experience spiritual joy. Weil's notion of affliction is a sort of "suffering plus" which transcends both body and mind, a physical and mental anguish that scourges the very soul.
   The better we are able to conceive of the fullness of joy, the purer and more intense will be our suffering in affliction and our compassion for others. ...
   Suffering and enjoyment as sources of knowledge. The serpent offered knowledge to Adam and Eve. The sirens offered knowledge to Ulysses. These stories teach that the soul is lost through seeking knowledge in pleasure. Why? Pleasure is perhaps innocent on condition that we do not seek knowledge in it. It is permissible to seek that only in suffering.

### Decreation

In Waiting for God Weil outlines the concept of decreation. Weil believed that if humans are to imitate God they must renounce their power and their autonomy. Weil refers to this as decreation (décréation) which she referred to as "passive activity" or based on her childhood readings of the Bhagavad Gita, “non-active action”.
Weil's concept of necessity related to decreation. Weil felt that necessity includes physical forces as well as social forces. Weil felt that when an individual is self-centred they deny necessity. Consent to necessity means the only choice is whether or not they desire the good. For Weil, this type of consent is obtained metaphysically through decreation rather than through effort.

### Metaxu: "Every separation is a link"

Metaxu, a concept Weil borrowed from Plato, is that which both separates and connects (e.g., as the word 'cleave' means both to cut and join). This idea of connecting distance was of the first importance for Weil's understanding of the created realm. The world as a whole, along with any of its components, including the physical body, is to be regarded as serving the same function for people in relation to God that a blind man's stick serves for him in relation to the world about him. They do not afford direct insight, but can be used experimentally to bring the mind into practical contact with reality. This metaphor allows any absence to be interpreted as a presence, and is a further component in Weil's theodicy.
In Gravity and Grace Weil provides a metaphor to explain this concept "Two prisoners whose cells adjoin communicate with each other by knocking on the wall. The wall is the thing which separates them but it is also their means of communication. It is the same with us and God. Every separation is a link."

### Beauty

For Weil, "The beautiful is the experiential proof that the incarnation is possible". The beauty that is inherent in the form of the world (this inherency is proven, for her, in geometry, and expressed in all good art) is the proof that the world points to something beyond itself; it establishes the essentially telic character of all that exists. In Weil's concept, beauty extends throughout the universe:
   "[W]e must have faith that the universe is beautiful on all levels...and that it has a fullness of beauty in relation to the bodily and psychic structure of each of the thinking beings that actually do exist and of all those that are possible. It is this very agreement of an infinity of perfect beauties that gives a transcendent character to the beauty of the world...He (Christ) is really present in the universal beauty. The love of this beauty proceeds from God dwelling in our souls and goes out to God present in the universe".
She also wrote that "The beauty of this world is Christ's tender smile coming to us through matter".
Beauty also served a soteriological function for Weil: "Beauty captivates the flesh in order to obtain permission to pass right to the soul." It constitutes, then, another way in which the divine reality behind the world invades people's lives: where affliction conquers with brute force, beauty sneaks in and topples the empire of the self from within.

### Philosophy in Waiting for God
#### Attention

As Weil explains in her book Waiting for God, attention consists of suspending or emptying one's thought, such that one is ready to receive—to be penetrated by—the object to which one turns one's gaze, be that object one's neighbour, or ultimately, God. Weil states that "the capacity to give one's attention to a sufferer is a very rare and difficult thing: it is almost a miracle; it is a miracle". Attention may be linked to compassion so that, with attention, one can identify with an afflicted individual letting go of ourselves and allowing the other person to have our attention. Weil contrasts this attention with pity describing pity as "it consists in helping someone in misfortune so as not to be obligated to think about him anymore, or for the pleasure of feeling distance between himself and oneself".
As Weil explains, one can love God by praying to God, and attention is the very "substance of prayer": when one prays, one empties oneself, fixes one's whole gaze towards God, and becomes ready to receive God. Similarly, for Weil, people can love their neighbours by emptying themselves, becoming ready to receive one's neighbour in all their naked truth, asking one's neighbour: "What are you going through?"
Weil further equates aspects of attention to love stating "To empty ourselves (French: Se vider) of our false divinity, to deny ourselves, to give up being the center of the world in imagination, to discern that all points in the world are equally centers and that the true center is outside the world, this is to consent to the rule of mechanical necessity in matter and of free choice at the center of each soul. Such consent is love. The face of this love, which is turned toward thinking persons, is the love of our neighbor."

#### Three Forms of the Implicit Love of God

In Waiting for God, Weil explains that the three forms of implicit love of God are (1) love of neighbour (2) love of the beauty of the world and (3) love of religious ceremonies. As Weil writes, by loving these three objects (neighbour, world's beauty and religious ceremonies), one indirectly loves God before "God comes in person to take the hand of his future bride," since prior to God's arrival, one's soul cannot yet directly love God as the object. Love of neighbour occurs (i) when the strong treat the weak as equals, (ii) when people give personal attention to those that otherwise seem invisible, anonymous, or non-existent, and (iii) when people look at and listen to the afflicted as they are, without explicitly thinking about God—i.e., Weil writes, when "God in us" loves the afflicted, rather than people loving them in God. Second, Weil explains, love of the world's beauty occurs when humans imitate God's love for the cosmos: just as God creatively renounced his command over the world—letting it be ruled by human autonomy and matter's "blind necessity"—humans give up their imaginary command over the world, seeing the world no longer as if they were the world's center. Finally, Weil explains, love of religious ceremonies occurs as an implicit love of God, when religious practices are pure. Weil writes that purity in religion is seen when "faith and love do not fail," and most absolutely, in the Eucharist.

## Works

According to Lissa McCullough, Weil would likely have been "intensely displeased" by the attention paid to her life rather than her works. She believed it was her writings that embodied the best of her, not her actions and definitely not her personality. Weil had similar views about others, saying that if one looks at the lives of great figures in separation from their works, it "necessarily ends up revealing their pettiness above all", as it's in their works that they have put the best of themselves.
Weil's most famous works were published posthumously.
       In the decades since her death, her writings have been assembled, annotated, criticized, discussed, disputed, and praised. Along with some twenty volumes of her works, publishers have issued more than thirty biographies, including Simone Weil: A Modern Pilgrimage by Robert Coles, Harvard's Pulitzer-winning professor, who calls Weil 'a giant of reflection.'

### The Iliad, or The Poem of Force

Weil wrote The Iliad, or The Poem of Force (French: L'Iliade ou le poème de la force), a 24-page essay, in 1939 in Marseilles among thousands of refugees fleeing Nazi-occupied France. First published in 1940 in Les Cahiers du Sud, the only significant literary magazine available in the French free zone. It is still commonly used in university courses on the Classics.
The essay focuses on the theme that Weil calls 'Force' in the Iliad, which she defines as "that x which turns anyone subjected to it into a thing." In the opening sentences of the essay, she sets out her view of the role of Force in the poem:
   The true hero, the true subject, the centre of the Iliad, is force. Force employed by man, force that enslaves man, force before which man's flesh shrinks away. In this work, at all times, the human spirit is shown as modified by its relations with force, as swept away, blinded, by the very force it imagined it could handle, as deformed by the weight of the force it submits to.$^{:5}$
The New York Review of Books has described the essay as one of Weil's most celebrated works, while it has also been described as among "the twentieth century's most beloved, tortured, and profound responses to the world's greatest and most disturbing poem."
Simone Petrement, a friend of Weil's, wrote that the essay portrayed the Iliad as an accurate and compassionate depiction of how both victors and victims are harmed by the use of force.
The essay contains several extracts from the epic which Weil translated herself from the original Greek; Petrement records how Weil took over half an hour per line.

### The Need for Roots

Weil's book The Need for Roots (French: L'Enracinement) was written in early 1943, immediately before her death later that year. In it Weil presents a morality based on compassion rather than the rule of law. At this time Weil was in London working for the French Resistance and trying to convince its leader, Charles de Gaulle, to form a contingent of nurses, including Weil, who would parachute to the front lines. Weil's intention was partially for these nurses to provide care, but also to offer an inspiring moral opposite to Nazism with Weil stating "it may be that our victory depends upon the presence among us of a corresponding inspiration, but authentic and pure".
The Need for Roots has an ambitious plan. It sets out to address the past and to propose a road map for the future of France after World War II. She painstakingly analyzes the spiritual and ethical milieu that led to France's defeat by the German army, and then addresses these issues with the prospect of eventual French victory.

#### Obligations vs Rights

Weil felt that "all human beings are bound by identical obligations, although they are performed in different ways according to particular circumstances." and that "duty to the human being as such - that alone is eternal". Weil differentiates between rights and obligations viewing the two as subject and object. "The actual relationship between the two is as between object and subject. A man, considered in isolation, only has duties, amongst which are certain duties towards himself. Other men, seen from his point of view, only have rights. He, in his turn, has rights, when seen from the point of view of other men, who recognize that they have obligations towards him. A man left alone in the universe would have no rights whatever, but he would have obligations." Weil elaborates supporting the idea that obligations alone are independent stating "rights are always found to be related to certain conditions. Obligations alone remain independent of conditions." with obligations being a universal condition "All human beings are bound by identical obligations, although these are performed in different ways according to particular circumstances." whereas rights are conditional "...a right is not effectual by itself, but only in relation to the obligation to which it corresponds".

#### Defining roots

In this work Weil makes the case for roots or the idea that the persistence of people is tied to the persistence of their culture, their way of life, as carried through generations. For Weil roots involved obligations to participate in community life, feel connected to place, and maintain links through time. The "roots" Weil refers to are nourishment that enable humans to fully grow and that a rooted community allows the individual to develop with a view toward God or eternal values.
In contrast, a threat to the human soul is uprootedness (déracinement) is the condition of people where the only binding forces in society are money and the imagined nation. For industrial working conditions Weil states "although they have remained geographically stationary, they have been morally uprooted, banished and the reinstated as it were on sufferance, in the form of industrial brawn". Weil states that "money destroys human roots wherever it is able to penetrate" and it "manages to outweigh all other motives because the effort it demands of the mind is so much less...".
Weil opposed behavior that uprooted people including colonialism (including the French empire), some forms of mass media, and poor industrial working conditions. Weil did not excuse moral issues within a place, stating countries are a vital medium but one with good and evil and justice and injustice. Weil wrote passionately against the French government's colonial policies including the mission civilisatrice stating "we can no longer say or think that we have received from on high the mission to teach the universe how to live." though Weil also opposed the creation of new nations based on the European model stating "there are already too many nations in the world"

#### Patriotism of Compassion

Weil was also not opposed to patriotism but saw it rooted not in pride but instead in compassion and that this compassion, unlike pride, can be extended to other nations stating compassion is "able, without hindrance, to cross frontiers extend itself over all countries in misfortune, overall countries without exception for all peoples are subjected to the wretchedness of the human condition".

### Gravity and Grace

While Gravity and Grace (French: La Pesanteur et la Grâce) is one of the books most associated with Simone Weil, the work was not intended to be a book at all. Rather, the work consists of various passages selected from Weil's notebooks and arranged topically by her friend Gustave Thibon. Weil had given Thibon some of her notebooks written before May 1942, but not with any intent to publish them. Hence, the resulting selections, organization and editing of Gravity and Grace were much influenced by Thibon, a devout Catholic (see Thibon's introduction to Gravity and Grace (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1952) for more details).
Weil felt gravity and grace were opposites believing that gravity signifies the force of the natural world of which all beings are physically, materially, and socially affected and that this "pulls" attention away from God and the afflicted whereas grace is a form of justice and a counter-balance, motivated by the goodness of God. Weil felt that this gravity (force) and grace (justice) are the two most fundamental aspects of the world and came together at the crucifixion.

## Legacy

During her lifetime, Weil was known only in relatively narrow circles and even in France her essays were mostly read only by those interested in radical politics. During the first decade after her death, Weil rapidly became famous, attracting attention throughout the West. For the third quarter of the 20th century, she was widely regarded as the most influential person in the world on new work concerning religious and spiritual matters. Her philosophical, social and political thought also became popular, although not to the same degree as her religious work.
Aside from influencing various fields of study, Weil deeply affected the personal lives of numerous individuals. Pope Paul VI said that Weil was one of his three greatest influences. Weil is also cited as an influence by Iris Murdoch, Jacques Derrida, Albert Camus, Franz Fanon, Emmanuel Levinas, George Grant, Adrienne Rich, Jacqueline Rose, and Thomas Merton. Weil's popularity began to decline in the late 1960s and 1970s. However, more of her work was gradually published, leading to many thousands of new secondary works by Weil scholars, some of whom focused on achieving a deeper understanding of her religious, philosophical and political work. Others broadened the scope of Weil scholarship to investigate her applicability to fields like classical studies, cultural studies, education, and even technical fields like ergonomics.
Many commentators have given highly positive assessments of Weil as a person; some describe her as a saint, even as the greatest saint of the twentieth century, including T. S. Eliot, Dwight Macdonald, Leslie Fiedler, and Robert Coles. After they met at age 18, Simone de Beauvoir wroteː "I envied her for having a heart that could beat right across the world." Weil biographer Gabriella Fiori writes that Weil was "a moral genius in the orbit of ethics, a genius of immense revolutionary range." Maurice Schumann said that since her death there was "hardly a day when the thought of her life did not positively influence his own and serve as a moral guide." In 1951, Albert Camus wrote that she was "the only great spirit of our times." Foolish though she may have appeared at times—dropping a suitcase full of French resistance papers all over the sidewalk and scrambling to gather them up—her deep engagement with both the theory and practice of caritas, in all its myriad forms, functions as the unifying force of her life and thought. Gustave Thibon, the French philosopher and Weil's close friend, recounts their last meeting, not long before her death: "I will only say that I had the impression of being in the presence of an absolutely transparent soul which was ready to be reabsorbed into original light." The Routledge edition of Gravity and Grace includes a New York Times Book Review stating "‘In France she is ranked with Pascal by some, condemned as a dangerous heretic by others, and recognized as a genius by all." In 2017 President Emmanuel Macron mentioned Weil and her philosophy in a joint address to Parliament stating the need for what Weil calls l’effectivité (effectivity).
Weil has been criticised, however, even by those who otherwise admired her deeply, such as T. S. Eliot, for being excessively prone to divide the world into good and evil, and for her sometimes intemperate judgments. Weil was a harsh critic of the influence of Judaism on Western civilisation. However, her niece Sylvie Weil and biographer Thomas R. Nevin argue that Weil did not reject Judaism and was heavily influenced by its precepts. Weil was an even harsher critic of the Roman Empire, in which she refused to see any value. On the other hand, according to Eliot, she held up the Cathars as exemplars of goodness, despite there being in his view little concrete evidence on which to base such an assessment. According to Pétrement she idolised Lawrence of Arabia, considering him to be a saint. A few critics have taken an overall negative view. Several Jewish writers, including Susan Sontag, have accused her of antisemitism, although this perspective is far from universal. A small minority of commentators have judged her to be psychologically unbalanced or sexually obsessed. General Charles de Gaulle, her ultimate boss while she worked for the French Resistance, considered her "insane", although even he was influenced by her and repeated some of her sayings for years after her death.
A meta study from the University of Calgary maintains a bibliography of more than 5,000 books, essays, journal articles, and theses about Weil and her work. Together French and English comprise slightly over 50% of the total records collected. Other organizations dedicated to her work include Association pour l'Étude de la Pensée de Simone Weil and the American Weil Society.

## Weil in film, stage, and media

"Approaching Simone" is a play created by Megan Terry. Dramatizing the life, philosophy and death of Simone Weil, Terry's play won the 1969/1970 Obie Award for Best Off-Broadway Play.
Weil was the subject of a 2010 documentary by Julia Haslett, An encounter with Simone Weil. Haslett noted that Weil had become "a little-known figure, practically forgotten in her native France, and rarely taught in universities or secondary schools".
Weil was also the subject of Finnish composer Kaija Saariaho's La Passion de Simone (2008), written with librettist Amin Maalouf.
Chris Kraus' 1996 film Gravity and Grace alludes to the posthumous work of Simone Weil. Chris Kraus' 2000 novel Aliens & Anorexia chronicles her experience producing the film while also touching on Kraus' personal study and interaction with Simone Weil's philosophy and life.
Weil's work, Venice Saved, was not completed in her lifetime but put together as a play and translated by Silvia Panizza and Philip Wilson.
T. S. Eliot, W. H. Auden, Czeslaw Milosz, Seamus Heaney, Flannery O’Connor, Susan Sontag, Octavia Bright, Anne Carson, Adrienne Rich, Annie Dillard, Mary Gordon, Maggie Helwig, Stephanie Strickland, Kate Daniels, Sarah Klassen and Lorri Neilsen Glennall cite Weil as an inspiration of their books and literature.
Clancy, a character from Twenty One Pilots’ albums Trench, Scaled and Icy, and Clancy reflects themes inspired by the French philosopher Simone Weil. Like Weil, who critiqued oppression and explored the quest for spiritual freedom, Clancy's journey through the oppressive city of Dema, ruled by tyrannical bishops, mirrors Weil's critiques of oppressive systems and her emphasis on the quest for spiritual freedom. The connection is further highlighted by the leader of Dema, Nico, a reference to Nicolas Bourbaki, a pseudonym linked to Weil's brother, André Weil. Additionally, the bishops’ religion, Vialism, pronounced similarly to "Weilism," hints at a direct homage to Simone Weil, underscoring the album's exploration of suffering, awareness, and the search for truth, key themes in Weil's work.