# SPQR

SPQR or S.P.Q.R., an initialism for Senatus Populusque Romanus (Classical Latin:; transl. "The Senate and People of Rome"), is an emblematic phrase referring to the government of the Roman Republic. It appears on documents made public by an inscription in stone or metal, in dedications of monuments and public works, and on some Roman currency.
The full phrase appears in Roman political, legal, and historical literature, such as the speeches of Cicero and Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Books from the Founding of the City) of Livy.

## Translation

In Latin, Senātus is a nominative singular noun meaning "Senate". Populusque is compounded from the nominative noun Populus, "the People", and -que, an enclitic particle meaning "and" which connects the two nominative nouns. The last word, Rōmānus ("Roman"), is an adjective modifying the whole of Senātus Populusque: the "Roman Senate and People", taken as a whole. Thus, the phrase is translated literally as "The Roman Senate and People", or more freely as "The Senate and People of Rome".

## Historical context

The title's date of establishment is unknown, but it first appears in inscriptions of the Late Republic, from around 80 BC onwards. Previously, the official name of the Roman state, as evidenced on coins, was simply ROMA. The abbreviation last appears on coins of Constantine the Great (ruled 312–337 AD), the first Roman emperor to support Christianity.
This signature continued in use under the Roman Empire. The emperors were considered the de jure representatives of the people even though the senātūs consulta, or decrees of the Senate, were made at the de facto pleasure of the emperor.
Populus Romanus in Roman literature is a phrase meaning the government of the People. When the Romans named governments of foreign states, they used populus in the singular or plural, such as populi Priscorum Latinorum, "the governments of the Old Latins". Romanus is the established adjective used to distinguish the Romans, as in civis Romanus, "Roman citizen".
The Roman people appear very often in law and history in such phrases as dignitas, maiestas, auctoritas, libertas populi Romani, the "dignity, majesty, authority, freedom of the Roman people". They were a populus liber, "a free people". There was an exercitus, imperium, iudicia, honores, consules, voluntas of this same populus: "the army, rule, judgments, offices, consuls and will of the Roman people". They appear in early Latin as Popolus and Poplus, so the habit of thinking of themselves as free and sovereign was quite ingrained.
The Romans believed that all authority came from the people. It could be said that similar language seen in more modern political and social revolutions directly comes from this usage. People in this sense meant the whole government. The latter, however, was essentially divided into the aristocratic Senate, whose will was executed by the consuls and praetors, and the comitia centuriata, "committee of the centuries", whose will came to be safeguarded by the Tribunes.
One of the ways the emperor Commodus (180–192) paid for his donatives and mass entertainments was to tax the senatorial order, and on many inscriptions, the traditional order is provocatively reversed (Populus Senatusque...).

## Medieval use

Beginning in 1184, the Commune of Rome struck coins in the name of the SENATVS P Q R. From 1414 until 1517, the Roman Senate struck coins with a shield inscribed SPQR.

## Modern use

During the regime of Benito Mussolini, SPQR was emblazoned on a number of public buildings and manhole covers in an attempt to promote his dictatorship as a "New Roman Empire".
Even in contemporary usage, SPQR is still used in the municipal coat of arms of Rome and as abbreviation for the comune of Rome in official documents. The Italians have long used a different and humorous expansion of this abbreviation, "Sono Pazzi Questi Romani" (lit. 'They're crazy, these Romans'). SPQR is also part of the coat of arms of the Capital Military Command of the Italian army (Italian: Comando Militare Capitale).
In business, in English-speaking countries, SPQR is sometimes (humorously) used to mean "Small Profits, Quick Returns", often by people who have studied Latin at school.

### Civic references

SPQx is sometimes used as an assertion of municipal pride and civic rights. The Italian town of Reggio Emilia, for instance, has SPQR in its coat of arms, standing for Senatus Populusque Regiensis. There are historic usages of the deployment of the "SPQx" format in various other European cities and towns:
| City | Country | SPQx | Latin | Where has it been used |
| Alkmaar | Netherlands | SPQA | | On the façade of the Waag building |
| Amsterdam | Netherlands | SPQA | Senatus Populusque Amstelodamensis | At the Stadsschouwburg theater on Leidseplein and some of the bridges |
| Antwerp | Belgium | SPQA | Senatus Populusque Antverpensis | On Antwerp City Hall and other public buildings and schools |
| Ascoli Piceno | Italy | SPQA | Senatus Populusque Asculum | On the wall above the south loggia of the Piazza del Popolo |
| Basel | Switzerland | SPQB | Senatus Populusque Basilea | On the Webern-Brunnen in Steinenvorstadt |
| Benevento | Italy | SPQB | Senatus Populusque Beneventanus | On manhole covers |
| Bologna | Italy | SPQB | Senatus Populusque Bonononiensis | On the Fountain of Neptune |
| Bremen | Germany | SPQB | | In Bremen City Hall. |
| Bruges | Belgium | SPQB | | On its coat of arms |
| Brussels | Belgium | SPQB | Senatus Populusque Bruxellensis (of the city) or Senatus Populusque Belgicus (of the country) | Repeatedly on the Palace of Justice, over the main stage of the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie, and on the ceiling of the hemicycle of the Belgian Senate in the Palace of the Nation. |
| Capua | Italy | SPQC | | |
| Catania | Italy | SPQC | | On manhole covers |
| Chicago | United States | SPQC | Senatus Populusque Chicago | On the George N. Leighton Cook County Criminal Courthouse |
| Dublin | Ireland | SPQH | Senatus Populusque Hibernicus | On the City Hall, built in 1769 |
| Florianópolis | Brazil | SPQF | Senatus Populusque Florianopolitanus | |
| Franeker | Netherlands | SPQF | | At the a gate on the Westerbolwerk and Academiestraat 16 |
| Freising | Germany | SPQF | | Above the door of the town hall |
| Ghent | Belgium | SPQG | Senatus Populusque Gandavensis | On the opera house, theatre and some other major buildings, inscribed on a shield on coins struck in Ghent in 1583, during the Dutch Revolt |
| Groningen | Netherlands | SPQG | | Above the entrance of the Der Aa-kerk |
| The Hague | Netherlands | SPQH | | Above the stage in the Koninklijke Schouwburg |
| Hamburg | Germany | SPQH | | On a door in the city hall (Hamburg Rathaus) |
| Hanover | Germany | | | |
| Haarlem | Netherlands | SPQH | | On the façade of the town hall at the "Grote Markt" |
| Hasselt | Belgium | SPQH | | |
| Istanbul | Turkey | SPQC | Senatus Populusque Constantinopolitanus | |
| Kortrijk | Belgium | SPQC | Senatus Populusque Cortoriacum | On the City hall |
| Kraków | Poland | SPQC | Senatus Populusque Cracoviensis | Over the Waza Gate in Wawel Castle |
| La Plata | Argentina | SPQR | | On a monument outside of the city's casco urbano |
| Leeuwarden | Netherlands | SPQL | Senatus Populusque Leovardia | On the mayor's chain of office |
| Leuven | Belgium | SPQL | Senatus Populusque Leuvensis | Over the painting of Jesus in the back reception room inside Leuven Town Hall |
| Liverpool | United Kingdom | SPQL | Senatus Populusque Liverpudliensis | On various gold doors in St George's Hall |
| City of London | United Kingdom | SPQL | Senatus Populusque Londiniensis | On historic variants of the City's coat of arms |
| Lübeck | Germany | SPQL | Senatus Populusque Lubecensis | On the Holstentor |
| Lucerne | Switzerland | | | |
| Madrid | Spain | SPQM | Senatus Populusque Matritensis | On the Fuente de Apolo [es], built in 1780 |
| Milan | Italy | SPQM | | The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V struck coins at Milan with the inscription S P Q Mediol Optimo Principi. |
| Modica | Italy | SPQM | | On the coat of arms |
| Molfetta | Italy | SPQM | | On the coat of arms |
| Naples | Italy | SPQN | Senatus Populusque Neāpolis | Inscribed on a shield on coins struck during Masaniello's 1647 revolt |
| Noto | Italy | SPQN | Senatus Populusque Netum | On the coat of arms and the façade of Noto Cathedral. |
| Nuremberg | Germany | SPQN | Senatus Populusque Norimbergensis | On the Charles Bridge (one of the major bridges over river Pegnitz in the inner city) |
| Oudenburg | Belgium | SPQO | Senatus Populusque Odenburgensis | On its water pump next to the market square |
| Olomouc | Czech Republic | SPQO | Senatus Populusque Olomucensis | On the coat of arms |
| Palermo | Italy | SPQP | | |
| Penne, Abruzzo | Italy | SPQP | | |
| Rieti | Italy | SPQS | Senatus Populusque Sabinus | On the coat of arms, present also in the modern composite Lazio coat-of-arms |
| Rotterdam | Netherlands | SPQR | | Mural in the Burgerzaal of Rotterdam City Hall |
| Severn Beach | United Kingdom | SPQR | | On the crest of Pilning & Severn Beach Parish Council |
| Seville | Spain | SPQH | Senatus Populusque Hispalensis | On the historic banner of the city |
| Siena | Italy | SPQS | | On the base of a statue of the Capitoline Wolf |
| Solothurn | Switzerland | SPQS | Senatus Populusque Solodori | On the Cathedral of St Ursus and Victor |
| Terracina | Italy | SPQT | | |
| Tivoli, Lazio | Italy | SPQT | | |
| Toruń | Poland | SPQT | Senatus Populusque Thorunensis | On the City Hall |
| Valencia | Spain | SPQV | Senatus Populusque Valentinus | In several places and buildings, including the Silk Exchange and the University of Valencia Historic Building. |
| Verviers | Belgium | SPQV | | On the Grand Theatre |
| Vienna | Austria | SPQV | Senatus Populusque Viennensis | Above the main entrance of the civic armoury (Bürgerliches Zeughaus) at Am Hof, with a dedication to Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI (Imperante Carolo VI. instauravit) |
| Winschoten | Netherlands | SPQW | Senatus Populesque Winschotanus | On the façade of the municipal office (stadhuis) of Oldambt |

### Popular culture

SPQR is often used to represent the Roman Empire and Roman Republic, such as in video games and movies. In the 2000 movie Gladiator, the Roman general Maximus (portrayed by Russell Crowe) has "SPQR" tattooed on his upper arm, which he removes by scraping after he is sold into slavery.

## Gallery

* The inscription in the Arch of Titus
* Manhole cover in Rome with SPQR inscription
* SPQR in the coat of arms of Reggio Emilia
* Detail from the mosaic floor in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan
* "Superiority of the warrior class", by Wenceslaus Hollar
* Arch of Septimius Severus top inscription
* Dedicatory plaque to Federico Fellini on Via Veneto
* Field symbol (right) at the Belvedere palace, Vienna