# Eastern Sudanic languages

In most classifications, the Eastern Sudanic languages are a group of nine families of languages that may constitute a branch of the Nilo-Saharan language family. Eastern Sudanic languages are spoken from southern Egypt to northern Tanzania.
Nubian (and possibly Meroitic) gives Eastern Sudanic some of the earliest written attestations of African languages. However, the largest branch by far is Nilotic, spread by extensive and comparatively recent conquests throughout East Africa. Before the spread of Nilotic, Eastern Sudanic was centered in present-day Sudan. The name "East Sudanic" refers to the eastern part of the region of Sudan where the country of Sudan is located, and contrasts with Central Sudanic and Western Sudanic (modern Mande, in the Niger–Congo family).
Lionel Bender (1980) proposes several Eastern Sudanic isoglosses (defining words), such as *kutuk "mouth", *(ko)TVS-(Vg) "three", and *ku-lug-ut or *kVl(t) "fish".
In older classifications, such as that of Meinhof (1911), the term was used for the eastern Sudanic languages, largely equivalent to modern Nilo-Saharan sans Nilotic, which is the largest constituent of modern Eastern Sudanic.
Güldemann (2018, 2022) considers East Sudanic to be undemonstrated at the current state of research. He only accepts the evidence for a connection between the Nilotic and Surmic languages as "robust", and states that Rilly's evidence (see below) for the northern group comprising Nubian, Nara, Nyima, Taman and Meroitic "certainly look[s] promising". He finds the Southern East Sudanic unit (comprising Nilotic, Surmic, Jebel, Temein and Daju) typologically coherent and, with the exclusion of Daju, showing likely correspondences among personal pronouns. Glottolog (2023) does not accept even a Surmic–Nilotic relationship.

## Typology

The putative Eastern Sudanic languages are "surprisingly diverse" and resemble in this the larger Nilo-Saharan proposal. No common typological features unify them. A set of head-initial languages corresponds largely with the Southern group (typologically similar to also e.g. the Kadu and Central Sudanic families), and a set of head-final languages corresponds largely with the Northern group (typologically similar to also e.g. the Maban and Saharan families). Typological difference, however, does not preclude a relationship, and typological similarities with nearby certainly or likely unrelated languages suggests that these similarities might be partly areal. Omotic and Cushitic, in particular, are nearby head-final families belonging instead in the large Afro-Asiatic phylum and forming the Ethiopian language area.

## Internal classification

There are several different classifications of East Sudanic languages.

### Bender (2000)

Lionel Bender assigns the languages into two branches, depending on whether the 1st person singular pronoun ("I") has a /k/ or an /n/:

### Rilly (2009)

Claude Rilly (2009:2) provides the following internal structure for the Eastern Sudanic languages.

### Starostin (2015)

Starostin, using lexicostatistics, finds strong support for Bender's Northern branch, but none for the Southern branch. Eastern Sudanic as a whole is rated a probable working model, pending proper comparative work, while the relationship between Nubian, Tama, and Nara is beyond reasonable doubt.
Nyima is not part of the northern group, though it appears to be closest to it. (For one thing, its pronouns align well with the northern (Astaboran) branches.) Surmic, Nilotic, and Temein share a number of similarities, including in their pronouns, but not enough to warrant classifying them together in opposition to Astaboran without proper comparative work. Jebel and Daju also share many similarities with Surma and Nilotic, though their pronominal systems are closer to Astaboran.
Inclusion of Kuliak and Berta is not supported. Similarities with Kuliak may be due to both being Nilo-Saharan families, whereas Berta and Jebel form a sprachbund.
A similar classification was given in Starostin (2014):
* Eastern Sudanic
** Tama-Nara-Nubian branch
*** Tama
*** Nara-Nubian
**** Nara
**** Nubian
** Surmic branch
*** Northern Surmic (= Majang)
*** Southern Surmic
**** Southwest Surmic
**** Southeast Surmic
** Nilotic branch
*** Northern Nilotic
**** Western Nilotic
**** Eastern Nilotic
*** Southern Nilotic
** Daju
** Nyimang
** Temein
** Jebel

### Blench (2019, 2021)

Roger Blench (2019)$^{:18}$ and (2021), like Starostin, only finds support for Bender's Northern branch. Blench proposes the following internal structure, supported by morphological evidence.

### Dimmendaal & Jakobi (< 2020)

Dimmendaal & Jakobi (2020:394), published in 2020 but written some times earlier, retains Bender's Southern branch; they also accept Berta:

## Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages (excluding Nilotic and Surmic languages):
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Nara | Nara (Nera) | dōkkūū | àriɡáà | sāāná | ʃōōná | wiita | dáátà | jāāriɡáà (5+ 2) ? | dèssèná (5+ 3) ? | lùfūttá-màdāā (10–1) ? | lùfūk |
| Nubian, Western | Midob Nubian | pàrci | ə̀ddí | táasí | èejí | téccí | kórcí | òlòttì | ídíyí | úkúdí / úfúdí | tímmíjí |
| Nubian, Northern | Nobiin (1) | weː˥r | u˥wwo˥ | tu˥sko˥ | ke˥mso˥ | di˧dʒ | ɡo˥rdʒo˥ | ko˧lo˧d | i˥dwo˥ | o˧sko˧d | di˥me˥ |
| Nubian, Northern | Nobiin (2) | wèer/ wéer | úwwó | túskú / tískó | kémsó | dìj / dìjì | ɡórjó | kòlòd | ídwó | òskòd / òskòdi | dímé |
| Nubian, Central, Hill, Kadaru-Ghulfan | Kadaru | bèè | òró | tèɟɟúk | kèɲɟú | tìccʊ́ | kɔ́rʃʊ́ | kɔ́ladʊ́ | ɪ̀d̪d̪ɔ́ | wìɪd̪ɔ́ | bùɽè |
| Nubian, Central, Hill, Kadaru-Ghulfan | Ghulfan | bɛr | óra | tóǰuk | kɪ́ɲu | ʈiʃú | kwúrʃu | kwalát | ɪ́ddu | wìít | buɽé |
| Nubian, Central, Hill, Unclassified | Dilling | bee | oree | tujjuŋ j = dʒ or ɟ ? | kimmiɲi | ticci c = tʃ or c ? | kʷarcu | kʷalad | ɪddɪ | wit | bure |
| Nyimang | Afitti | àndá | àrmák | àcúp | kòrsík | múl | màndár | màrám | dùvá | àdìsól | òtúmbùrà |
| Nyimang | Ama (Nyimang) | ɲálā | ārbā | āsá | kùd̪ò | mūl | kūrʃ | kūlād̪ | èd̪ò | wìèd̪ò | fòɽó |
| Tama, Mararit | Mararit (Mararet) | kára~kún / karre | warɪ / warre | ètte~ítí / ataye | kow / ɡaw | máai / maye | túur / tuur | kul / kuuri | kàkàwák / kokuak (4+ 4) | kàrkʌ́s / kekeris | tók / toɡ |
| Tama, Tama-Sungor | Sungor (Assangori) | kur | wári | écà | kús | mási | tɔ̀r | kál | kíbís | úkù | mɛ̀r |
| Tama, Tama-Sungor | Tama (1) | kúˑr | wárí | íɕí | kús /kus | massi / masi | tɔˑ́r | kâl | kímís | úkū | mír |
| Tama, Tama-Sungor | Tama (2) | kʊ́rʊ́ | wɛ̀rːɛ̀ | ɪ̀cːáʔ | kʊʃ | masɛː | t̪ɔ́rː | kəl | kíbìs | ʊ́kːʊ́ | mɛ̀ːr |
| Daju, Eastern Daju | Liguri Daju (Logorik) | nɔhɔrɔk | pɛtdax | kɔdɔs | tɛspɛt | mdɛk | kɔskɔdɔs (2 x 3) | tɛspɛtkɔdɔs (4 + 3) | tɛspɛttɛspɛt (4 + 4) | mdɛktɛspɛt (5 + 4) | saʔasɛɲ |
| Daju, Eastern Daju | Shatt Damam | núuxù | pɨ̀dàx | kòdòs | tèspèt | mɨ̀dɨ̀k | áaràn | pàxtíndìɲ | kòs(s)èndàŋ tèspédèspè {four.four} | dábàs(s)éndàŋ ~bây.núuxù | àsìɲ |
| Daju, Western Daju | Dar Dadju Daju | mùnɡún | fìdà /pîda | kòdɔ̀s | tɛ̀spɛ̀t | mòdùk | àràŋ | fàktíndí | kòsóndá | bìstóndá | àsíŋ |
| Daju, Western Daju | Dar Sila Daju (1) | ùŋɡʊ̀n | bìdàk | kòdòs | tìʃɛ̀t | mùdùk | (ʔ)àràn ~ (ʔ)àrân | fáktíndì | kòohándà | bìstándà | àsîŋ |
| Daju, Western Daju | Dar Sila Daju (2) | ʊ́ŋɡʊ́n | bíd̪ák | kɔ̀d̪ɔs | t̪ɪ̀ʃɛ́ːθ | múd̪uk | árān̪ | fáθɪ́nd̪ɪ́ | kɔ̀ánd̪a | bɪ̀sθánd̪a | ásːɪŋ |
| Eastern Jebel, Gaam | Gaahmɡ (Tabi) (1) | t̪āmán | d̪áāɡɡ | ɔ́ðɔ̄ | yə̄ə̄sə́ | áás-ááman (lit: 'hand') | t̪ə́ld̪ìɡɡ | íd̪iɡɡ-ɔ́ðɔ̄ (lit: 'eyes-two') | íd̪iɡ-dáāɡɡ (lit: 'eyes-three') | íd̪iɡ-yə̄ə̄sə́ (lit: 'eyes-four') | ə́sēɡ-dí (lit: 'hands-also') |
| Eastern Jebel, Gaam | Gaahmɡ (Tabi) (2) | taman | diɔk / diak | oða / ʔoda | yɛsu /yɛzan | ʌsumʌn | tɛltɛk /tɛldɛk | tauðuk / idakʼdiak (5 + 2) | kurbaiti /idukʼʔoda (5 + 3) | akaitɛn / idukʼyɛsu (5 + 4) | ʔasiɡdi |