# Acehnese language

Acehnese (Jawi: بهسا اچيه) is an Austronesian language natively spoken by the Acehnese people in Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia. This language is also spoken by Acehnese descendants in some parts of Malaysia like Yan, in Kedah. Acehnese is used as the co-official language in the province of Aceh, alongside Indonesian.

## Name

As of 1988, Acehnese is the modern English name spelling and the bibliographical standard, and Acehnese people use the spelling Acehnese when writing in English. Achinese is an antiquated spelling of the English language tradition. Atjehnese is the Dutch spelling and an outdated Indonesian one. The spelling Achehnese originates from a 1906 English translation of the Dutch-language Studien over atjesche klank- en schriftleer. Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 35.346-442 by Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, 1892. In Acehnese the language is called Basa/Bahsa Acèh. In Indonesian it is called Bahasa Aceh.

## Classification and related languages

Acehnese belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of Austronesian. Acehnese's closest relatives are the other Chamic languages, which are principally spoken in Vietnam and Cambodia. The distant relative of the Chamic family is the Malayic language family, which includes languages also spoken in Sumatra such as Minangkabau as well as the national language, Indonesian.
Paul Sidwell notes that Acehnese likely has an Austroasiatic substratum.
Linguist Paul Sidwell wrote that "Sometime during this early phase of language shift, perhaps before the beginning of Common Era, the Chamic speakers who were to become the Acehnese left the mainland on a journey that would ultimately end in northern Sumatra." Basing on Graham Thurgood's thesis, Sidwell argues that Acehnese likely had been long separated from Chamic around the first to second century BCE.

## Distribution

Acehnese language is spoken primarily in coastal region of Aceh. This language is spoken in thirteen regencies and four cities in Aceh, which are:
City
* Sabang
* Banda Aceh
* Lhokseumawe
* Langsa
North-East Coast
* Aceh Besar
* Pidie
* Pidie Jaya
* Bireuen
* North Aceh
* East Aceh (except in three districts, Serba Jadi, Peunaron and Simpang Jernih, where the Gayo language is spoken)
* Aceh Tamiang (mostly Manyak Payet and Kuala Simpang District; the rest of the Regency speaks Tamiang Malay)
West-South Coast
* Aceh Jaya
* West Aceh
* Nagan Raya
* Southwest Aceh (except in Susoh District where the Jamee language is spoken)
* South Aceh (mixed with Kluet language and Aneuk Jamee)

## Phonology

Oral monophthong vowels in Acehnese are shown in the table below.
Acehnese vowels :
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i | ɨ ~ ɯ | u |
| Close-mid | e | ə | o |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ʌ | ɔ |
| Open | | a | |
In addition to the modern 26 letter basic Latin alphabet, Acehnese uses the supplementary letters è, é, ë, ô, and ö, making a total of 31 letters in its orthography.
The table below shows the Acehnese consonant phonemes and the range of their realizations.
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Nasal | plain | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | |
| Nasal | post-oralized | (mᵇ) | (nᵈ) | (ɲᶡ) | (ŋᶢ) | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɟ | ɡ | |
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | | h |
| Fricative | voiced | | z | | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | | l | j | w | |
| Trill | Trill | | r | | | |
Notes:
* The stop /t/ is slightly retroflex.
* Syllable-final orthographic ⟨k⟩ always represents /ʔ/ save in certain recent loans
* /z/, /f/, and /ʃ/ are borrowed sounds, and are often replaced by d and the clusters ph and ch, respectively
* The nasals /m/, /n/, /ɲ/, /ŋ/ are realized as post-oralized nasals (also called "funny nasals") before oral vowels and consonants. They are distinct from the nasal–plosive sequences /mb/, /nd/, /ɲɟ/, /ŋɡ/, e.g. in [banᵈa] 'port' vs [mandum] 'all'.

## Grammar

Acehnese features a split ergative system. Intransitives that align with the agent of a transitive verb (Sa) always show agreement by a proclitic (1). Meanwhile, intransitives that align with the patient of a transitive verb (Sp) may optionally show agreement by an enclitic (2). Volitionality is the determining factor for whether an intransitive verb is Sa or Sp.
Jih
he
ka=ji=jak.
INCHO=3=go
Jih ka=ji=jak.
he INCHO=3=go
"He has gone."
Gopnyan
he
ka=sakét=geuh.
INCHO=sick=3
Gopnyan ka=sakét=geuh.
he INCHO=sick=3
"He is sick."

## Writing system

Formerly, the Acehnese language was written in an Arabic script called Jawoë or Jawi in the Malay language. The script is less common nowadays. Since colonization by the Dutch, the Acehnese language has been written in the Latin script, with the addition of supplementary letters. The diacritical letters are é, è, ë, ö and ô. The sound /ɨ/ is represented by ⟨eu⟩ and the sound /ʌ/ is represented by ⟨ö⟩, respectively. The letter 'ë' is used exclusively to represent the schwa sound which forms the second part of diphthongs. The letters f, q, v, x, and z are only used in loanwords.
Vowels :
| Grapheme | Phoneme (IPA) | Open syllable | Closed syllable |
| a | /a/ | ba /ba/ 'carry' | bak /baʔ/ 'at, tree' |
| e | /ə/ | le /lə/ 'many' | let /lət/ 'pull out' |
| é | /e/ | baté /bate/ 'cup, betel tray' | baték /bateʔ/ 'batik' |
| è | /ɛ/ | bè /bɛ/ 'smell' | bèk /bɛʔ/ prohibitive 'don't' (e.g. bèk neupajoh boh gantang lôn 'don't you eat my fries') |
| ë | /ə/ | huë /huə/ 'pull' | huëk /huəʔ/ 'choke' |
| eu | /ɯ/ | keu /kɯ/ 'front' | keuh /kɯh/ 'so (e.g. nyan keuh), pronominal affix for second person (e.g. droe-keuh)' |
| i | /i/ | di /di/ 'in, from' | dit /dit/ 'few, small amount' |
| o | /ɔ/ | yo /jɔ/ 'afraid' | yok /jɔʔ/ 'shake' |
| ô | /o/ | rô /ro/ 'spill' | rôh /roh/ 'enter' |
| ö | /ʌ/ | pö /pʌ/ 'fly' | pöt /pʌt/ 'pluck, pick' |
| u | /u/ | su /su/ 'sound, voice' | sut /sut/ 'remove, detach' |
Consonants :
| Grapheme | Phoneme (IPA) | Extra notes |
| b | /b/ | |
| c | /c/ | |
| d | /d/ | |
| f | /f/ | Used in foreign words. Usually replaced with p (/p/). |
| g | /ɡ/ | |
| h | /h/ | |
| j | /ɟ/ | |
| k | /k/, /ʔ/ at the end of a syllable. | |
| l | /l/ | |
| m | /m/ | |
| mb | /mb/ | |
| n | /n/ | |
| nd | /nd/ | |
| ng | /ŋ/ | |
| ngg | /ŋɡ/ | |
| nj | /ɲɟ/ | |
| ny | /ɲ/ | |
| p | /p/ | |
| q | /q, k/ | Used in foreign words. Usually replaced with k (/k/). |
| r | /r/ | |
| s | /s/ | |
| sy | /ʃ/ | |
| t | /t/ | |
| v | /v/ | Used in foreign words. Usually replaced with b (/b/). |
| w | /w/ | |
| x | /ks/ | Used in foreign words. Usually replaced with ks (/ks/). |
| y | /j/ | |
| z | /z/ | Used in foreign words. |

## Literature

Acehnese language is rich with literature. The oldest manuscript written in Acehnese is Hikayat Seumau'un from 1658 CE. Most Acehnese literatures consist of poetic works, very little written in prose form.

## Dialects

At least ten Achehnese dialects exist: Pasè, Peusangan, Matang, Pidië, Buëng, Banda, Daya, Meulabôh, Seunagan, and Tunong. At least three major dialects exist: Baet Lambuot, Mesjid Punteut and Panthe Ketapang. Baet Lambuot dialect spoken in Aceh Besar regency. Mesjid Punteut dialect spoken in Simpang Ulim district, East Aceh regency. Panthe Ketapang dialect spoken in Jaya district, Aceh Jaya regency.
Geographical dialects: Aceh Besar, Pidie, Peusangan, Pasai, East Aceh (Aceh Timur) and West Aceh (Aceh Barat), North Aceh (Aceh Utara), Bireun, Aceh Jaya
West coast dialects (dialek pesisir barat): Tunong, Seunagan, Meulabôh, Daya.
Dialects :
Acehnese
Banda Aceh‑‑Aceh Besar dialects
Banda Aceh dialect
Aceh Besar dialect
West coast dialects
Tunong dialect
Seunagan dialect
Meulabôh dialect
Daya dialect
North Aceh dialects
Peusangan dialect :
Dialects :

## Vocabulary
### Pronouns

| Acehnese | Indonesian | English translation |
| kèë | aku | I |
| ulôn, lôn, lông | saya | I (polite) |
| ulôn tuwan, lôn tuwan | saya | I (most polite) |
| kamoë | kami | we (exclude) |
| geutanyoë, tanyoë | kita | we (include) |
| jih | dia | he/she/it |
| gop nyan | beliau | he/she/it (polite) |
| droëneuh nyan | beliau | he/she/it (most polite) |
| awak nyoë/nyan | mereka | they |
| ureueng nyoë/nyan | mereka | they (polite) |
| kah | kau | you |
| gata | kamu | you (for younger) |
| droëneuh | Anda | you (polite) |
| awak kah | kalian | you (plural) |
| ureuëng droëneuh | kalian | you (plural) (polite) |

### Numerals

| Acehnese | Indonesian | English translation |
| sa | satu | one |
| dua | dua | two |
| lhèë | tiga | three |
| peuët | empat | four |
| limöng | lima | five |
| nam | enam | six |
| tujôh | tujuh | seven |
| lapan | delapan | eight |
| sikureuëng | sembilan | nine |
| siplôh | sepuluh | ten |

### Interrogative words

| Acehnese | Indonesian | English translation |
| peuë, puë | apa | what |
| soë | siapa | who |
| pajan | kapan | when |
| töh, siré | yang mana | which |
| pat | di mana | where |
| panè | dari mana | from where |
| ho | ke mana | to where |
| padum, padit | berapa | how many |
| pakri, paban | bagaimana | how |
| pakön | kenapa | why |

## Sample text

The following texts are excerpts from the official translations of article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Acehnese, along with the original declaration in English.
* Acehnese text sample:
       Original text
       "Bandum ureuëng lahé deungon meurdéhka, dan deungon martabat dan hak njang saban. Ngon akai geuseumiké, ngon haté geumeurasa, bandum geutanjoë lagèë sjèëdara. Hak dan keumuliaan."
       Using standard spelling
       "Bandum ureuëng lahé deungön meurdéka, deungön martabat ngön hak nyang saban. Ngön akai geuseumiké, ngön até geumeurasa, bandum geutanyoë lagèë cèëdara. Hak ngön keumuliaan."
* The original English version of the text:
       "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

## Gallery

* Hikayat Akhbarul Karim
* Hikayat Banta Beuransah
* Hikayat Prang Sabi