# Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds

The Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy is a bird taxonomy proposed by Charles Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist. It is based on DNA–DNA hybridization studies conducted in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s.
DNA–DNA hybridization is among a class of comparative techniques in molecular biology that produce distance data (versus character data) and that can be analyzed to produce phylogenetic reconstructions only using phenetic tree-building algorithms. In DNA–DNA hybridization, the percent similarity of DNA between two species is estimated by the reduction in hydrogen bonding between nucleotides of imperfectly complemented heteroduplex DNA (i.e., double stranded DNAs that are experimentally produced from single strands of two different species), compared with perfectly matched homoduplex DNA (both strands of DNA from the same species).

## Characteristics

The classification appears to be an early example of cladistic classification because it codifies many intermediate levels of taxa: the "trunk" of the family tree is the class Aves, which branches into subclasses, which branch into infraclasses, and then "parvclasses", superorders, orders, suborders, infraorders, "parvorders", superfamilies, families, subfamilies, tribes, subtribes and finally genera and species. However the classification study did not employ modern cladistic methods, as it relies strictly on DNA-DNA hybridization as the sole measure of similarity.
The Sibley–Ahlquist arrangement differs greatly from the more traditional approach used in the Clements taxonomy.
Neornithes
Neoaves
Other birds
Galloanserae
Anseriformes
Galliformes
Craciformes :
Basal divergences of modern birds in the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy :
Showing major changes from Clements, the Sibley–Ahlquist orders are as follows:
* Enlarged Struthioniformes replaces the ratite orders Rheiformes (rheas), Casuariiformes (cassowaries and emus), and Apterygiformes (kiwis) and Struthioniformes (ostriches).
* Tinamiformes (tinamous) is unchanged.
* A greatly enlarged Ciconiiformes includes the previous Sphenisciformes (penguins), Gaviiformes (divers), Podicipediformes (grebes), Procellariiformes (tubenoses), Pelecaniformes (pelicans and allies), Ciconiiformes (storks and allies), Falconiformes (birds of prey), Charadriiformes (waders, gulls, terns, and auks), and the family Pteroclidae (sandgrouse).
* Anseriformes (ducks and allies) is unchanged.
* Modified Galliformes landfowl. Chachalacas moved to Craciformes.
* New Craciformes chachalacas etc. Previously part of Galliformes.
* Modified Gruiformes Cranes. Button-quails moved to Turniciformes.
* New Turniciformes button-quails etc. Previously part of Gruiformes.
* Modified Columbiformes doves. Sandgrouse moved to Ciconiiformes.
* Psittaciformes cockatoos and parrots unchanged.
* New Musophagiformes turacos. Previously part of Cuculiformes.
* Modified Cuculiformes cuckoos. Turacos moved to Musophagiformes.
* Modified Strigiformes owls. Enlarged to include Caprimulgiformes (nightjars, owlet-nightjars, frogmouths, oilbirds, potoos).
* Modified Apodiformes swifts. Hummingbirds moved to Trochiliformes.
* New Trochiliformes hummingbirds. Previously part of Apodiformes.
* Coliiformes mousebirds unchanged.
* Trogoniformes trogons unchanged.
* Modified Coraciiformes rollers.
* New Upupiformes Hoopoe. Previously part of Coraciiformes.
* New Bucerotiformes hornbills. Previously part of Coraciiformes.
* New Galbuliformes jacamars and puffbirds. Previously part of Piciformes.
* Modified Piciformes woodpeckers
* Passeriformes perching birds unchanged.
Some of these changes are minor adjustments. For instance, instead of putting the swifts, treeswifts, and hummingbirds in the same order that includes nothing else, Sibley and Ahlquist put them in the same superorder that includes nothing else, consisting of one order for the hummingbirds and another for the swifts and treeswifts. In other words, they still regard the swifts as the hummingbirds' closest relatives.
Other changes are much more drastic. The penguins were traditionally regarded as distant from all other living birds. For instance, Wetmore put them in a superorder by themselves, with all other non-ratite birds in a different superorder. Sibley and Ahlquist, though, put penguins in the same superfamily as divers (loons), tubenoses, and frigatebirds. According to their phylogenetic analysis, penguins are closer to those birds than herons are to storks.
The Galloanserae (waterfowl and landfowl) has found widespread acceptance. The DNA evidence of Sibley–Ahlquist for the monophyly of the group is supported by the discovery of the fossil bird Vegavis iaai, an essentially modern but most peculiar waterfowl that lived near Cape Horn some 66–68 million years ago, still in the age of the dinosaurs.

## Classification

| Parvclass | Superorder | Order | Families | Note on current status |
| Infraclass Eoaves | Infraclass Eoaves | Infraclass Eoaves | Infraclass Eoaves | Infraclass is now called Palaeognathae. Parvclass Ratitae is no longer used, and is generally understood to refer to a taxon without tinamous or lithornithids, which is now recognised as polyphyletic. |
| Ratitae | Ratitae | Struthioniformes | Struthionidae Rheidae Casuariidae Apterygidae | Struthioniformes found to be polyphyletic: Rheidae now in Rheiformes Casuariidae now in Casuariiformes Apterygidae now in Apterygiformes |
| Ratitae | Ratitae | Tinamiformes | Tinamidae |
| Infraclass Neoaves | Infraclass Neoaves | Infraclass Neoaves | Infraclass Neoaves | Infraclass is now called Neognathae. Neoaves now refers to a clade containing all neognaths except for Pangalloanserae. |
| Galloanserae | Gallomorphae | Craciformes | Cracidae Megapodiidae | Families included in Galliformes. |
| Galloanserae | Gallomorphae | Galliformes | Phasianidae Numididae Odontophoridae | Now includes craciform families. |
| Galloanserae | Anserimorphae | Anseriformes | Anhimidae Anseranatidae Dendrocygnidae Anatidae | |
| Turnicae | Turnicae | Turniciformes | Turnicidae | Included in Charadriiformes. |
| Picae | Picae | Piciformes | Indicatoridae Picidae Megalaimidae Lybiidae Ramphastidae |
| Coraciae | Galbulimorphae | Galbuliformes | Galbulidae Bucconidae | Families included in Piciformes by most authorities. |
| Coraciae | Bucerotimorphae | Bucerotiformes | Bucerotidae Bucorvidae |
| Coraciae | Bucerotimorphae | Upupiformes | Upupidae Phoeniculidae Rhinopomastidae | Families included in Bucerotiformes by most authorities. |
| Coraciae | Coraciimorphae | Trogoniformes | Trogonidae |
| Coraciae | Coraciimorphae | Coraciiformes | Coraciidae Brachypteraciidae Leptosomidae Momotidae Todidae Alcedinidae Halcyonidae Cerylidae Meropidae |
| Coliae | Coliae | Coliiformes | Coliidae |
| Passerae | Cuculimorphae | Cuculiformes | Cuculidae Centropodidae Coccyzidae Opisthocomidae Crotophagidae Neomorphidae | Opisthocomidae now placed in own order, Opisthocomiformes. Cuckoos (all other families) are now typically merged into Cuculidae. |
| Passerae | Psittacimorphae | Psittaciformes | Psittacidae | Psittacidae now split into Strigopidae, Cacatuidae, Psittacidae and Psittaculidae at least. Strigopidae is sometimes split into Strigopidae and Nestoridae, and Psittaculidae is sometimes split into Psittrichasiidae and Psittaculidae. |
| Passerae | Apodimorphae | Apodiformes | Apodidae Hemiprocnidae | Included in Caprimulgiformes sensu lato or Caprimulgimorphae (Strisores). Otherwise in enlarged Apodiformes. |
| Passerae | Apodimorphae | Trochiliformes | Trochilidae | Included in Caprimulgiformes sensu lato or Caprimulgimorphae (Strisores). Otherwise in enlarged Apodiformes. |
| Passerae | Strigimorphae | Musophagiformes | Musophagidae |
| Passerae | Strigimorphae | Strigiformes | Tytonidae Strigidae Aegothelidae Podargidae Batrachostomidae Steatornithidae Nyctibiidae Eurostopodidae Caprimulgidae | Strigiformes found to be polyphyletic and now restricted to owls (Tytonidae, Strigidae) Other families are placed in Caprimulgiformes sensu lato or Caprimulgimorphae (Strisores). In the latter case, the ordinal assignments are as follows: Aegothelidae now in Aegotheliformes or Apodiformes Frogmouths (Podargidae and Batrachostomidae) now in Podargiformes, and typically merged into Podargidae. Steatornithidae now in Steatornithiformes Nyctibiidae now in Nyctibiiformes |
| Passerae | Passerimorphae | Columbiformes | Raphidae Columbidae | Columbidae now considered paraphyletic, so Raphidae now merged into it. |
| Passerae | Passerimorphae | Gruiformes | Eurypygidae Otididae Gruidae Aramidae Heliornithidae Psophiidae Cariamidae Rhynochetidae Rallidae Mesitornithidae | Gruiformes found to be polyphyletic: Eurypygidae and Rhynochetidae now in Eurypygiformes; Odtidae now in Otidiformes; Cariamidae now in Cariamiformes; Mesitornithidae now in Mesitornithiformes. |
| Passerae | Passerimorphae | Ciconiiformes | Pteroclidae Thinocoridae Pedionomidae Scolopacidae Rostratulidae Jacanidae Chionidae Pluvianellidae Burhinidae Charadriidae Glareolidae Laridae Accipitridae Sagittariidae Falconidae Podicipedidae Phaethontidae Sulidae Anhingidae Phalacrocoracidae Ardeidae Scopidae Phoenicopteridae Threskiornithidae Pelecanidae Ciconiidae Fregatidae Spheniscidae Gaviidae Procellariidae | Ciconiiformes found to be non-monophyletic and now restricted to storks (Ciconiidae). The other families are distributed between: Pterocliformes (Pteroclidae) Charadriiformes (Thinocoridae through Laridae) Accipitriformes (Accipitridae, Sagittariidae) Falconiformes (Falconidae) Podicipediformes (Podicipedidae) Phaethontiformes (Phaethontidae) Suliformes (Sulidae, Anhingidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Fregatidae) Pelecaniformes (Ardeidae, Scopidae, Threskiornithidae, Pelecanidae) Phoenicopteriformes (Phoenicopteridae) Sphenisciformes (Spheniscidae) Gaviiformes (Gaviidae) Procellariiformes (Procellariidae) |
| Passerae | Passerimorphae | Passeriformes | Acanthisittidae Pittidae Eurylaimidae Philepittidae Tyrannidae Thamnophilidae Furnariidae Formicariidae Conopophagidae Rhinocryptidae Climacteridae Menuridae Ptilonorhynchidae Maluridae Meliphagidae Pardalotidae Petroicidae Irenidae Orthonychidae Pomatostomidae Laniidae Vireonidae Corvidae Callaeatidae Picathartidae Bombycillidae Cinclidae Muscicapidae Sturnidae Sittidae Certhiidae Paridae Aegithalidae Hirundinidae Regulidae Pycnonotidae Hypocoliidae Cisticolidae Zosteropidae Sylviidae Alaudidae Nectariniidae Melanocharitidae Paramythiidae Passeridae Fringillidae |