# Walungu Territory

Walungu Territory is a territory located within the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Situated approximately 40 km from Bukavu, the capital of South Kivu Province, it shares borders with Kabare Territory to the north, Mwenga Territory to the south, Uvira Territory and the Ruzizi River, as well as the Republics of Rwanda and Burundi to the east, and Shabunda Territory and part of Kabare Territory to the west. According to the 2018 national census, the region has a population of 716,671, with 672,436 residing in the Ngweshe Chiefdom and 44,235 in the Kaziba Chiefdom. Spanning an area of 1,800 km$^2$, Walungu Territory has a population density of 398 inhabitants per square kilometer.
It was the site of a plane crash on May 25, 2005 when a chartered Maniema Union Antonov An-28 aircraft, owned by Victoria Air, crashed into a mountain near Walungu, about 30 minutes after takeoff. All of the 22 passengers and 5 crew members were killed (see 2005 in aviation). United Nations Peacekeeping Force has also been employed to counter foreign armed groups and local militias which are committing HRVs (Human Rights Violations) while exploring minerals from the area.

## Geography

Walungu Territory is located between 28.44 and 28.758° E (longitude) and 2.692 and 2.625° S (latitude). It sits at an elevation between 1000 meters (at Kamanyola) and 3000 meters above sea level. Covering a surface area of 1800 km$^2$, it is a large region that encompasses a diverse range of natural features, such as mountains, lakes, rivers, forests, and fertile plains. Roughly half of its terrain is situated within the Ruzizi Plain, a vast lowland area known for its fertile soils and favorable agricultural conditions. With its flat topography and favorable climate, the territory is ideal for various agricultural activities, supporting the cultivation of a wide range of crops, including maize, beans, cassava, rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, soybeans, coffee, bananas, tomatoes, onions, and other cash crops. Notable mountain ranges in the territory include Mount Kahuzi and the Mitumba Mountains, which provide habitats for various flora and fauna, including the endangered Eastern lowland gorillas. The territory is also crossed by expansive forests and lush vegetation, forming part of the larger Congo Basin rainforest—the largest rainforest in Africa and second in size only to the Amazon rainforest. These forests support a vast array of plant and animal species, including rare and endemic species, and play a vital role in climate regulation, carbon sequestration, and the preservation of biodiversity.

### Hydrology

The region boasts a rich hydrological network, with numerous major rivers coursing through its landscape. Among these rivers, the Ruzizi River, Luvinvi River, Ulindi River, and Ludubo River are significant waterways in the territory that support diverse aquatic life, provide water resources for local communities, and contribute to the overall water balance of the region. The Ruzizi River serves as a natural border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi. It originates from Lake Kivu and flows northward, passing through the Ruzizi Plain within the territory. Additionally, the territory is home to several smaller rivers, such as Nshesha, Mugaba, Lunzinzi, and Mayi-Mingi. These rivers may change names as they traverse different plains or marshes. Although less extensively documented, these smaller rivers likely contribute to the local water supply and play a role in maintaining the ecological balance within their respective regions.

### Vegetation

Walungu Territory is a diverse landscape consisting of grassy savannahs, state woodlots, and forest reserves. The savannahs are home to a range of wildlife such as antelopes, zebras, wildebeests, lions, and cheetahs. These grassy plains play a key role in natural processes such as nutrient cycling, soil formation, and water infiltration. The state woodlots and forest reserves are crucial for the conservation and sustainable management of forest resources. They provide timber, firewood, and non-timber forest products for local communities while also harboring various flora and fauna. However, the forest reserves and woodlots face significant challenges from human activities. The population surrounding these areas relies heavily on natural resources for their daily needs, leading to frequent deforestation and degradation. The relentless quest for firewood and construction materials has resulted in the destruction of these forested areas.

### Geology

The region is characterized by clay-sandy soil that has undergone considerable weathering over time. Lateritic soil, known for its ferruginous crust and acidic nature, leads to limited fertility, particularly for crop cultivation. However, the low-lying marshy areas boast fertile soil attributed to sediment deposition from local organisms, enriched by rivers, and water erosion during the rainy season. Nonetheless, the slopes of the territory are prone to erosion, leading to a rapid decrease in agricultural productivity. The foothills and mountains of the territory exhibit an accumulation of mineral deposits, harboring subsoil resources such as gold, iron, tantalum, wolfram, and tin, which hold significant economic potential. The lateritic soils are a result of long-term weathering and leaching processes that have altered the original composition of the parent rocks. Consequently, the soil becomes impoverished in essential nutrients, affecting its ability to support robust plant growth. As a result, farmers in the region face challenges in maximizing agricultural yields due to the limitations of the soil's fertility.

### Climate

Walungu Territory experiences a humid subtropical climate. The territory has a significant rainy season, which typically extends from September 15 to May 15, making it the longest season throughout the year. It is characterized by relatively mild temperatures, with the hottest month recording an average temperature of around 25°C. Conversely, the coldest month experiences an average temperature of approximately 18°C, contributing to a relatively comfortable year-round climate. Throughout the year, monthly temperatures within the territory exhibit variations ranging between 15°C and 25°C, indicating moderate temperature fluctuations. This moderate climate supports various outdoor activities and agricultural practices. Annual rainfall in Walungu Territory typically varies between 900 and 1,500 millimeters, illustrating a considerable range of precipitation levels.

## History

Walungu Territory was officially created by Presidential Decree No. 65-221 on May 3, 1967, and it was further amended by Decree No. 82-006 on February 25, 1982.

### Conflict and insecurity
#### Kwilu Rebellion and First Congo War

Walungu Territory has a tumultuous history marked by conflict and insecurity, stemming from a combination of internal and external factors. In the late 1960s, the region played a significant role during the Mulelist insurgency, where the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) achieved a key victory against the insurgency. During the First Congo War from 1996 to 1997, the region became a battleground due to its strategic location and access to valuable resources. The conflict involved multiple armed groups, including the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), and Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB). The AFDL, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, emerged as a rebel movement aiming to overthrow the regime of President Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire. The AFDL received significant support from RPA, led by Paul Kagame, due to concerns about the presence of Rwandan Hutu militias in eastern Zaire. However, reports, including those from the United Nations Security Council, also implicated the AFDL and its allies in massacres and the systematic looting of Zaire's mineral wealth.
In 1996, Walungu Territory was home to a large number of refugee camps as part of the broader "Bukavu camps" network, which housed an estimated 307,499 refugees across Walungu, Kabare, and Kalehe territories. These camps sheltered Rwandan and Burundian refugees who had fled previous conflicts. As the AFDL-RPA troops advanced towards Bukavu, they targeted these camps, often with brutal tactics. On 20 October 1996, AFDL-RPA forces attacked the Kamanyola refugee camp in Walungu Territory, killing an unknown number of refugees and Zairean civilians, with bodies reportedly dumped into pit latrines. On 21 October, AFDL-RPA units executed refugees at Nyarubale in the Kalunga hills as they attempted to flee towards Bukavu. Those who failed Swahili language tests or had Rwandan or Burundian accents were systematically executed. On 26 October, fleeing refugees were ambushed between Nyantende and Walungu-Centre, with 200 to 600 people killed, most of them women, children, and the elderly. On 28 October 1996, five refugees were executed by AFDL-RPA forces in Lwakabiri, west of Bukavu. Following the fall of Bukavu on 29 October, AFDL-RPA forces continued targeting refugee camps to the north, including Kashusha and INERA. On 2 November, a large-scale attack on Kashusha/INERA camp left hundreds of refugees dead. Later, on 22 November, AFDL-RPA troops massacred between 500 and 800 refugees at Chimanga camp after deceiving them with promises of food and repatriation. In early 1997, similar atrocities continued, with reports of torture and executions along the Bukavu-Walungu road. Refugees were often arrested, tortured, and then killed, sometimes with knives.

#### Second Congo War

The outbreak of the Second Congo War plunged Walungu Territory into further turmoil. The conflict began when Laurent-Désiré Kabila, who had seized power from Mobutu, clashed with his former Rwandan and Ugandan allies. Tensions arose as Kabila was accused of marginalizing Tutsi factions in his government while favoring his Katangan allies. Allegations also surfaced that the United States provided military assistance to Rwanda before the conflict, reportedly to secure access to the DRC's rich natural resources. A U.S. Army Rwanda Interagency Assessment Team (RIAT) was deployed in July 1998 to train Rwandan military units. Some reports, including those by war correspondent Keith Harmon Snow, implicated U.S. figures such as Roger Winter of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants in supporting insurgencies. In July 1998, Kabila, fearing a coup d'état, dismissed Rwandan General James Kabarebe as Chief of Staff of the Congolese army and ordered all RPA soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory. This decision infuriated Rwanda and Uganda, prompting them to support a new rebel faction, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie-Goma (RCD-Goma). On 2 August 1998, mutinous Congolese troops allied with Rwanda and Uganda announced their rebellion via Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) in Goma. The RCD-Goma, heavily supported by Rwanda, swiftly captured Goma without resistance. The city remained under RCD-Goma and RPA control for nearly three years, from August 1998 to January 2001.
The war was characterized by extreme violence against civilians. On 3 August 1998, at Kavumu Airport near Bukavu, rebel Banyamulenge soldiers and RPA units executed at least 38 Congolese officers and 100 unarmed soldiers, forcing them to lie on the airport runway before their execution. That same month, RCD-Goma and RPA forces launched violent raids in Bukavu, killing, raping, and terrorizing civilians, particularly in Kadutu and Ibanda. Despite its rapid territorial gains, the RCD-Goma struggled to control rural areas due to its Tutsi-dominated leadership, dependence on Rwanda, and violent repression of civilians. Widespread human rights violations, including arbitrary arrests, torture, and forced disappearances, were reported in Bukavu and Uvira between 1998 and 2002, with many detainees transported to Goma, Kisangani, or Rwanda, where they vanished.
One of the war's most notorious massacres occurred on 24 August 1998, when RCD-Goma and RPA forces massacred over 1,000 civilians in the villages of Kilungutwe, Kalama, and Kasika in Mwenga Territory, 108 kilometers from Bukavu. The massacre, targeting women, children, and the elderly, was carried out with extreme brutality—women were raped, tortured, and subjected to genital mutilation, while infants and children were thrown into pit latrines. The perpetrators pillaged and set fire to villages before withdrawing. Similar atrocities followed in Kitutu (2 September 1998), Bushaku (21–22 October 1998), and Bitale (19 February 1999). Between December 1998 and January 1999, clashes between RCD-Goma and RPA forces and pro-Kabila militias in Walungu led to heavy civilian casualties. After the assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in January 2001, his successor, Joseph Kabila, initiated peace efforts, including the deployment of the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) observers and negotiations for a ceasefire. However, fighting persisted in many parts of the country, particularly in the eastern provinces. Efforts to reach a political settlement gained momentum with the signing of peace agreements between the DRC and its main foreign adversaries, Rwanda and Uganda, in 2002. The Pretoria Agreement, signed on 30 July 2002, called for the withdrawal of Rwandan troops in exchange for the dismantling of Hutu armed groups linked to the Rwandan genocide. A similar accord with Uganda was signed in Luanda on 6 September, leading to a phased withdrawal of Ugandan forces. These agreements marked a turning point, as they set the stage for broader negotiations involving all major Congolese factions.
Despite the withdrawal of foreign troops, internal conflicts persisted, particularly in North and South Kivu, where Kabila's government—supported by the Mayi-Mayi factions, FDD, and ALiR—battled the ANC (RCD-Goma's armed division) and Rwandan RPA soldiers. In late 2002, senior figures in RCD-Goma sought to consolidate their control by negotiating with the political wing of the Mudundu 40 Mayi-Mayi movement. Led by Odilon Kurhenga Muzimu and Patient Mwendanga, the political faction agreed to collaborate in neutralizing the movement's military wing, which was commanded by Albert Kahasha Murhula (Foka Mike) and had fortified positions in Burhale. However, when the negotiations failed to dismantle the group, RCD-Goma dismissed Mwendanga from his post as Governor of South Kivu in March 2003. This led to a military offensive in Walungu Territory, where ANC forces, backed by Rwandan troops, launched attacks on Mudundu 40 strongholds. Between 5–13 April 2003, ANC and Rwandan forces used heavy weaponry to assault the villages of Mwegerera, Lukumbo, Karhundu, and Izirangabo, resulting in the deaths of dozens of civilians. At least 27 women were raped, six people disappeared, and mass graves were discovered in multiple locations near Walungu. As part of a broader campaign of repression, ANC forces destroyed schools and healthcare facilities in retaliation against the local population for its alleged support of Mudundu 40.
The war officially concluded in 2003 with the signing of the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement, which led to the formation of a transitional government. However, the eastern DRC remained volatile, with numerous armed factions continuing to operate beyond state control.

#### Ongoing conflict

Since 2003, the region has been plagued by persistent insecurity and conflict due to armed groups like the FDLR (Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda) and Rasta militia (les Rasta), remnants of Interahamwe, perpetuating violence and instability. The Rasta militia, an ultra-violent armed group composed of approximately fifteen Congolese dissidents, emerged in the region and was responsible for several brutal massacres, most notably in the Nindja Chiefdom and Kaniola groupement between 2004 and 2007.
Another source of ongoing conflict is the traditional power struggle and the presence of vigilance committees; armed groups formed to protect local communities. Nonetheless, their presence has also generated internal tensions and conflicts. The head of the Ngweshe Chiefdom in Walungu Territory's decision to depose the leader of the Kaniola groupement without providing a justifiable reason fueled tensions. This expulsion, coupled with the existence of armed vigilance committees and the popularity of Foka Mike, a local figure, further aggravated the power struggle and accusations of militancy. Civil society in Kaniola and other parts of the region has voiced grievances against the chieftaincy chief, accusing him of lacking transparency and disregarding the demands and expectations of local populations. Parenthetically, the issue of access to land has become a severe source of insecurity. The competition between customary land practices and formal land law has created conflicts over land management and access. Customary land rights, often precarious and unprotected, leave many farmers susceptible to dispossession and exploitation by influential private individuals who convert large portions of land into private plantations. This plight has exacerbated land inequalities, as small-scale producers are constrained to rent land from large landowners under insecure oral agreements.

## Administrative subdivisions

Walungu Territory is administratively divided into two chiefdoms (chefferies), each further subdivided into groupements (groups) and localités (villages). The territory is governed by a territorial administrator and two assistant administrators, aiming to establish closer connections between the rulers and the ruled. Each chiefdom is headed by a chieftaincy commonly known as "Mwami" or "Bami", responsible for upholding customs and overseeing succession, which is traditionally passed down from father to son. The customary chiefs work in coordination with the administrative authority but maintain some level of independence. Each groupement is led by a groupement head, often from the royal family directly or indirectly. The village chiefs (chefs de village) within each groupement are appointed and dismissed by the paramount groupement leader after consulting the community.

### Chiefdoms (chefferies)

| No | Chiefdoms | Total area (km2) | Chief town | Groupements (groupings) |
| 1. | Ngweshe Chiefdom | 1,599 km$^2$ | Musunda | 1. Burhale |
| | | | | 2. Ikkoma |
| | | | | 3. Irongo |
| | | | | 4. Izege |
| | | | | 5. Kamanyola |
| | | | | 6. Kamisimbi |
| | | | | 7. Kaniola-Kanyola |
| | | | | 8. Karhongo |
| | | | | 9. Lubona |
| | | | | 10. Luchiga |
| | | | | 11. Lurhala |
| | | | | 12. Mulamba |
| | | | | 13. Mushinga |
| | | | | 14. Nduba |
| | | | | 15. Rubimbi |
| | | | | 16. Walungu |
| 2. | Kaziba Chiefdom | 195 km$^2$ | Lwanguku | 1. Bulumbwe |
| | | | | 2. Butuza |
| | | | | 3. Chibanda |
| | | | | 4. Chihumba |
| | | | | 5. Chirimiro |
| | | | | 6. Kabembe |
| | | | | 7. Kahungwe |
| | | | | 8. Kashanga |
| | | | | 9. Kashozi |
| | | | | 10. Chiburhi/Ciburhi |
| | | | | 11. Lukube |
| | | | | 12. Muchingwa |
| | | | | 13. Muhumba |
| | | | | 14. Mulambi |
| | | | | 15. Ngando |