# Naples yellow

Naples yellow, also called antimony yellow or lead antimonate yellow, is an inorganic pigment that largely replaced lead-tin-yellow and has been used in European paintings since the seventeenth century.$^{:219}$ While the mineral orpiment is considered to be the oldest yellow pigment, Naples yellow, like Egyptian blue, is one of the oldest known synthetic pigments.$^{:219}$ Naples yellow was used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, finding widespread application during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.$^{:221}$ Prior to its earliest occurrences in European paintings, the pigment was commonly employed in pottery, glazes, enamels, and glass.$^{:225}$ The pigment ranged in hue from a muted, earthy, reddish yellow to a bright light yellow.
A Latin treatise from the late 17th century by Andrea Pozzo referred to the pigment as luteolum napolitanum, which is the first recorded use of the term "Naples yellow"; its English name first appeared in print in 1738.$^{:76}$ Naples yellow originally referred to the chemical compound lead antimonate (Pb$_2$Sb$_2$O$_7$), but by the middle of the nineteenth century, a majority of manufacturers had stopped producing pure lead antimonate.$^{:219}$ Since then, writers and artists have incorrectly used Naples yellow to refer to other lead-based yellows. The related mineral of lead antimonate is bindheimite. However, this natural version was rarely employed as a pigment. After 1800, Naples yellow was superseded by chrome yellow (lead chromate) cadmium sulfide, and cobalt yellow.

## History

Naples yellow is one of the earliest synthetic pigments, its earliest uses dating from the period between the sixteenth and fourteenth century BC in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.$^{:219}$ Traces of Naples yellow have been discovered on glass fragments, glazed bricks, and glazed tiles from these ancient civilizations.$^{:221}$ Since its basic components, such as lead oxide and antimony oxide, had to be chemically manufactured, its early production would have required a high level of knowledge and skill.$^{:77}$ Early color theorists speculated that Naples yellow had originated from Naples or Italy's Mount Vesuvius. It was not until the late eighteenth century that Naples yellow was generally recognized as a synthetic pigment of lead antimonate.
The Italians first adopted Naples yellow as an enamel for tin-glazed pottery, or maiolica, from the beginning of the sixteenth century.$^{:221}$ The pigment then started to appear in European paintings, and between 1750 and 1850, when it achieved greater popularity in the art world.$^{:226}$ "Naples yellow" was a phrase that was first used in a treatise on frescos by Andrea Pozzo, published in Rome between 1693 and 1700. There, Pozzo refers to Naples yellow as luteolum napolitanum.$^{:76}$ By 1850, Naples yellow was sold in a variety of shades, such as French Naples yellow.$^{:223}$Manufacturers like C. Roberson and Co. produced Naples yellow until 1885.$^{:231}$ However, its popularity declined and it was progressively replaced by other yellow pigments like lead chromate and cadmium sulfide.$^{:226}$ Manufacturers today typically produce Naples yellow in combination with other pigments, such as ochre, iron oxide, lead white, titanium white, or zinc white, rather than pure lead antimonate.$^{:245}$

## Visual characteristics

Naples yellow is a saturated yellow, occasionally with pink or off-white hues. It has a strong hiding power and effectively covers other pigments. Temperature during production affects its hue. A more vibrant lemon-yellow is produced at higher temperatures, whereas an orange-yellow is produced at lower temperatures.$^{:227}$ Some manufacturers also note that there are six different shades of Naples yellow, ranging from a greenish yellow to a pinkish orange yellow.$^{:227}$

## Permanence

Naples yellow is not a stable pigment.$^{:76}$ It is susceptible to discoloration in humid air. George Field warned that Naples yellow can turn black.$^{:77}$ Naples yellow can also discolor in the presence of iron.$^{:227}$ Field therefore advised artists to use a palette knife made of ivory or horn, not metal.$^{:77}$

## Notable occurrences

Naples yellow was frequently used in ancient times to glaze pottery and glass. A piece of glass from the site of Amenhotep II's palace at Thebes (now at the Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the earliest known examples.$^{:248}$ Naples yellow has frequently appeared on the palettes of European painters such as Anton Raphael Mengs, Francisco Goya, Jacques-Louis-David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, and Paul Cézanne.$^{:245}$ The earliest occurrence of Naples yellow in European art is Matthias Stom's Arrest of Christ.$^{:223}$