# Umm El Qa'ab

Umm El Qaʻāb (sometimes romanised Umm El Gaʻab, Arabic: أم القعاب) is an archaeological site located at Abydos, Egypt. Its modern name, meaning "Mother of Pots", refers to the mound made of millions of broken pieces of pots which defines the landscape. Umm el Qa'ab contains evidence that the site is the cemetery for Egypt's predynastic proto-kings along with rulers of the 1st and 2nd dynasties. In addition to early royal tombs, evidence also suggests a link between the site, the cult of Osiris, and Osiris' annual festival.
The cemetery was likely founded during the Naqada I period (4,000 BCE) as evident from the tomb structures, pottery, and seal impressions excavated from the site. The location continued as a royal cemetery through the First Dynasty (2,950-2,775 BCE) and ended with the burial of only the last two kings of the Second Dynasty, Peribsen and Khasekhemy (2,650 BCE).
The Pre and Early dynastic royal cemetery at Umm el-Qa'ab became a site of veneration and cultic practice beginning in the Middle Kingdom (1,938 BCE) and stayed in use for 1,500 years until the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BCE).
The tombs of this area were first excavated by Émile Amélineau in the 1890s and more systematically by Flinders Petrie between 1899 and 1901. Since then the area has been excavated repeatedly by the German Archaeological Institute since the 1970s, which has allowed for a thorough reconstruction of the original layout and appearance of these tombs.

## Pre-dynastic tombs
### Cemetery U

Cemetery U is located at the northern edge of Umm el-Qa'ab and inscriptions found in the tombs has been interpreted by Günter Dreyer as evidence of it being the burial site of 17 Egyptian proto-kings of the Naqada III period. Tomb U-j contains the bulk of evidence which supports the royal nature of the site.

### Tomb U-j

Dated to Naqada IIIA2 (3,300 BCE), tomb U-j is the largest tomb found at Cemetery U and contains 12 separate chambers. In contrast to the earlier Predynastic pit tombs found at Cemetery U, tomb U-j's multichambered design was outlined by mud-brick walls and had a roof made from wooden beams. Although the tomb had been subject to plundering, about 2000 ceramic vessels were recovered with nearly one third having been imported from Palestine. These ceramic vessels contained traces of tree-resin-infused wine, providing the first evidence of wine in Ancient Egypt.
In addition to ceramic vessels, tomb U-j also contained bowls carved out of obsidian and chests made from imported cedar. The presence of these items suggests the existence of an extensive trade network during the time the tombs were being constructed. Small ivory tags with hieroglyphics inscribed on them were also recovered from the tomb. These artifacts provide the earliest evidence of writing in Egypt.

### Evidence for Social Stratification

Analysis of Tomb U-j has led some scholars to believe that the origins of social stratification within Ancient Egypt can be found among the artifacts and burial practices found at the site. The British archaeologist, Alice Stevenson believes the ivory tags found in the tomb provide evidence for the existence of advanced administrative and bureaucratic organization. In addition to the evidence of writing found in the tomb, the burials themselves have been interpreted as providing evidence of a society which was becoming more stratified. Outside the cemeteries of Abydos, contemporary tombs found elsewhere in Egypt were becoming less complex when compared to burials excavated at Cemetery U. This has been interpreted as evidence of ritual specialization, an organized effort to restrict materials, and artisanship centered around the burials at Umm el-Qa'ab.
* U-j: Unknown ruler, but possibly Scorpion I found in tomb, also possible pre dynastic ruler Bull is attested in one of the ivory tablets.
* B1/B2: Iry-Hor
* B7/B9: Ka

## First Dynasty tombs
### Cemetery B

Cemetery B is located south of Cemetery U and contains the tombs of Egypt's First Dynasty king along with the last two kings of the Second Dynasty. Furthermore, inscriptional evidence found at isolated tombs also suggests the Dynasty 0 rulers, Qa'a, Iry-Hor, and Narmer, were buried at this site. The royal tombs located at Cemetery B were significantly larger and more architecturally complex when compared to their predynastic predecessors at Cemetery U. For instance, the First Dynasty ruler, King Djer, had a burial chamber of nearly 96 sq. m, while the burial chamber at Tomb U-j was only 20 sq. m.
* B17/B18: Narmer
* B10/B15/B19: Aha
* O: Djer
* Z: Djet
* Y: Merneith
* T: Den
* X: Anedjib
* U: Semerkhet
* Q: Qa'a
* Tombs of the Egyptian 1st dynasty
* Pottery sherd, from stump base of a jug. 1st Dynasty. From the Royal Tomb of Semerkhet at Umm el-Qa'ab, Abydos, Egypt. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

## Second Dynasty tombs

At the beginning of the Second Dynasty (2,775 BCE), Egyptian kings were buried at Saqqara rather than Umm el-Qa'ab. However, this changed with the tombs of the dynasties last two kings being located at Umm el-Qa'ab in Cemetery B.
* P: Peribsen. A seal found in this tomb contains the first full sentence written in hieroglyphs.
* V: Khasekhemwy. This tomb was on a massive scale, with several interconnecting mud-brick chambers, and the actual burial chamber being constructed of dressed limestone blocks. Its measurements were: 68.97 m long and 10.04-17.06 wide. When excavated by Petrie in 1901 it contained a scepter made from sard and banded with gold, limestone vases with golden covers, and a ewer and basin of bronze.

## Osiris Cult and Annual Festival

Cult activity likely began at Umm el-Qa'ab during the 12th Dynasty reign of Senwosret I during the Middle Kingdom (1,919 BCE) and continued through until the Graeco-Roman Period, ending with the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BCE). Evidence of Osiris' affiliation with the site was highlighted after E. Amélineau discovered a basalt statue of Osiris in the refurbished tomb of king Djer. It was during Senwosret I's rule that a temple was built and dedicated to Osiris to the north of Umm el-Qa'ab with a processional valley linking the two sites.
An annual festival dedicated to Osiris began during the Middle Kingdom and his temple became a site of pilgrimage. King Djer's tomb, now rechristened as Osiris' tomb, became inextricably linked to the temple as a result of the festival. The festival was held between July and September, coinciding with the annual inundation of the Nile.
Priests associated with Osiris' cult would carry an image of the god out from his temple, travel along the processional valley, and bury the image at Umm el-Qa'ab. After burying the image, it would be ritualistically regenerated and returned to the temple along the same processional route. The processional route between Umm el-Qa'ab and the Osiris temple played an integral role during the festival as his myth was ceremonially reenacted along the route. The ritual significance of the causeway between Umm el-Qa'ab and Osiris' temple is further highlighted by Edouard Naville's discovery of six Osiris figures made of mud only 40 meters away from Djer's tomb.
The annual festival along with various cultic activities continued at Umm el-Qa'ab for around 1,500 years after being formally established. Chapter 169 of the Book of the Dead, a text found among New Kingdom and later period burials, directly references the annual festival. Aside from king Djer's tomb, tombs of other First Dynasty rulers such as Den and Qa'a were likely centers of cult practice. 18th Dynasty votive offerings were found near these early royal tombs in pits located 8 meters away from the burials.

## Human sacrifice and 1st Dynasty tombs

Human sacrifice was practiced as part of the funerary rituals associated with the First Dynasty. The tomb of Djer is associated with the burials of 338 individuals thought to have been sacrificed. The people and animals sacrificed, such as asses, were expected to assist the pharaoh in the afterlife. It appears that Djer's courtiers were strangled and their tombs all closed at the same time. For unknown reasons, this practice ended with the conclusion of the dynasty, with shabtis taking the place of actual people to aid the pharaohs with the work expected of them in the afterlife.