# Khanty languages

Khanty (also spelled Khanti or Hanti), previously known as Ostyak (/ˈɒstjæk/), is a Uralic language family that has multiple dialect continuua and is varyingly considered a language or a collection of distinct languages spoken in the Khanty-Mansi and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrugs. There were thought to be around 7,500 speakers of Northern Khanty and 2,000 speakers of Eastern Khanty in 2010, with Southern Khanty being extinct since the early 20th century. The number of speakers reported in the 2020 census was 13,900.
The Khanty language has many dialects. The western group includes the Obdorian, Ob, and Irtysh dialects. The eastern group includes the Surgut and Vakh-Vasyugan dialects, which in turn are subdivided into 13 other dialects. All these dialects differ significantly from each other by phonetic, morphological, and lexical features to the extent that the three main "dialects" (northern, southern and eastern) are mutually unintelligible. Thus, based on their significant multifactorial differences, Eastern, Northern and Southern Khanty may be considered separate but closely-related languages.

## Literary languages

The Khanty written language was first created after the October Revolution on the basis of the Latin script in 1930 and then with the Cyrillic alphabet (with the additional letter ⟨ң⟩ for /ŋ/) from 1937.
Khanty literary works are usually written in three Northern dialects, Kazym, Shuryshkar and Middle Ob. Newspaper reporting and broadcasting are usually done in the Kazym dialect.

## Varieties

Khanty is divided in three main dialect groups, which are largely mutually unintelligible and therefore best considered three languages: Northern, Southern and Eastern. Individual dialects are named after the rivers on which they are or were spoken. Southern Khanty is now probably extinct.

## Phonology

A general feature of all Khanty varieties is that long vowels are not distinguished, but a contrast between plain vowels (e.g. /o/) and reduced or extra-short vowels (e.g. /ŏ/) is found. That corresponds to an actual length distinction in Khanty's close relative, Mansi. According to scholars who posit a common Ob-Ugric ancestry for both, that was also the original Proto-Ob-Ugric situation.
Palatalization of consonants is phonemic in Khanty, as in most other Uralic languages. Retroflex consonants are also found in most varieties of Khanty.
Khanty word stress is usually on the initial syllable.

### Proto-Khanty

| | | Bilabial | Dental | Palatal(ized) | Retroflex | Velar |
| Nasal | Nasal | *m [m] | *n [n] | *ń [nʲ] | *ṇ [ɳ] | *ŋ [ŋ] |
| Stop/ Affricate | Stop/ Affricate | *p [p] | *t [t] | *ć [tsʲ] | *č̣ [ʈʂ] | *k [k] |
| Fricative | central | | *s [s] | | | *γ [ɣ] |
| Fricative | lateral | | *ᴧ [ɬ] | | | |
| Lateral | Lateral | | *l [l] | *ľ [lʲ] | *ḷ [ɭ] | |
| Trill | Trill | | *r [r] | | | |
| Semivowel | Semivowel | *w [w] | | *j [j] | | |
The 19 consonants reconstructed for Proto-Khanty are listed with the traditional UPA transcription, shown above, and an IPA transcription, shown below.
A major consonant isogloss among the Khanty varieties is the reflexation of the lateral consonants, *ɬ (from Proto-Uralic *s and *š) and *l (from Proto-Uralic *l and *ð). These generally merge, however with varying results: /l/ in the Obdorsk and Far Eastern dialects, /ɬ/ in the Kazym and Surgut dialects, and /t/ elsewhere. The Vasjugan dialect still retains the distinction word-initially and instead has shifted *ɬ > /j/ in this position. Similarly, the palatalized lateral *ľ developed to /lʲ/ in Far Eastern and Obdorsk, /ɬʲ/ in Kazym and Surgut, and /tʲ/ elsewhere. The retroflex lateral *ḷ remains in Far Eastern but in /t/-dialects develop into a new plain /l/.
Other dialect isoglosses include the development of original *ć to a palatalized stop /tʲ/ in Eastern and Southern Khanty but to a palatalized sibilant /sʲ ~ ɕ/ in Northern, as well as the development of original *č similarly to a sibilant /ʂ/ (= UPA: š) in Northern Khanty and partly also in Southern Khanty.

## Grammar
### The noun

The nominal suffixes include dual -ŋən, plural -(ə)t, dative -a, locative/instrumental -nə.
For example:
    xot "house" (cf. Finnish koti "home", or Hungarian ház)
    xotŋəna "to the two houses"
    xotətnə "at the houses" (cf. Hungarian otthon, Finnish kotona "at home", an exceptional form using the old, locative meaning of the essive case ending -na).
Singular, dual, and plural possessive suffixes may be added to singular, dual, and plural nouns, in three persons, for 3$^3$ = 27 forms. A few, from məs "cow", are:
    məsem "my cow"
    məsemən "my two cows"
    məsew "my cows"
    məstatən "the two of our cows"
    məsŋətuw "our two cows"

#### Cases

* Nominative case
* Accusative case
* Dative case
* Lative case, merger of differentiated local cases that is used to indicate relative location.
* Locative case Used to indicate place and direction.
* Ablative case, external case used to mean moving away from something.
* Approximative case, used to indicate a path towards.
* Translative case, used to indicate transformation.
* Instructive case (related to Instrumental case), as in something is an instrument for an action.
* Comitative case, used to indicate that something is with (accompanying) X.
* Abessive case, used to indicate that something is without x.

### Pronouns

The personal pronouns are, in the nominative case:
| | singular | dual | plural |
| 1st person | ma | min | muŋ |
| 2nd person | naŋ | nən | naŋ |
| 3rd person | tuw | tən | təw |
The cases of ma are accusative manət and dative manəm.
The demonstrative pronouns and adjectives are:
    tamə "this", tomə "that", sit "that yonder": tam xot "this house".
Basic interrogative pronouns are:
    xoy "who?", muy "what?"

### Numerals

Khanty numerals, compared with Hungarian and Finnish, are:
| Number | Khanty | Hungarian | Finnish |
| 1 | yit, yiy | egy | yksi |
| 2 | katn, kat | kettő, két | kaksi |
| 3 | xutəm | három | kolme |
| 4 | nyatə | négy | neljä |
| 5 | wet | öt | viisi |
| 6 | xut | hat | kuusi |
| 7 | tapət | hét | seitsemän |
| 8 | nəvət | nyolc | kahdeksan |
| 9 | yaryaŋ | kilenc | yhdeksän |
| 10 | yaŋ | tíz | kymmenen |
| 20 | xus | húsz | kaksikymmentä |
| 30 | xutəmyaŋ | harminc | kolmekymmentä |
| 40 | nyatəyaŋ | negyven | neljäkymmentä |
| 100 | sot | száz | sata |
* ↑ Possibly 'short of ten'
* ↑ 'three tens'
* ↑ 'four tens'
The formation of multiples of ten shows Slavic influence in Khanty, whereas Hungarian uses the collective derivative suffix -van (-ven) closely related to the suffix of the adverbial participle which is -va (-ve) today but used to be -ván (-vén). Note also the regularity of [xot]-[haːz] "house" and [sot]-[saːz] "hundred".

### Nomen

Case and number inflection of qɒːt 'house' :
| | | Number |
| | | Singular | Dual | Plural |
| Case | Nominative | qɒːt house | qɒːtɣən two houses | qɒːtət houses |
| Dative + Lative | qɒːtɐ to the house | qɒːtɣənɐ to the two houses | qɒːtətɐ to the houses |
| Locative | qɒːtnə in the house | qɒːtɣənnə in the two houses | qɒːtətnə in the houses |
| Ablative | qɒːti from the house | qɒːtɣəni from the two houses | qɒːtəti from the houses |
| Aproximative | qɒːtnɐm towards the house | qɒːtɣənnɐm towards the two houses | qɒːtətnɐm towards the houses |
| Translative | qɒːtɣə as the house | qɒːtɣənɣə as the two houses | qɒːtətɣə as the houses |
| Instructive | qɒːtɐt with the house | qɒːtɣənɐt with the two houses | qɒːtətɐt with the houses |
| Comitative | qɒːtnɐt with the house | qɒːtɣənnɐt with the two houses | qɒːtətnɐt with the houses |
| Abessive | qɒːtɬəɣ without the house | qɒːtɣənɬəɣ without the two houses | qɒːtətɬəɣ without the houses |

### Pronouns

Personal Pronouns in Surgut Kanty :
| | Singular | Singular | Singular | Dual | Dual | Dual | Plural | Plural | Plural |
| | 1. | 2. | 3. | 1. | 2. | 3. | 1. | 2. | 3. |
| Nominative | mɐː | nʉŋ | ɬʉβ, ɬʉɣ | miːn | niːn | ɬiːn | məŋ | nəŋ, niŋ | ɬəɣ, ɬiɣ |
| Accusative | mɐːnt | nʉŋɐt | ɬʉβɐt ɬʉβət | miːnt miːnɐt | niːnɐt | ɬiːnɐt | məŋɐt | nəŋɐt | ɬəɣɐt |
| Dative | mɐːntem | nʉŋɐti | ɬʉβɐti | miːnɐtem miːntem minɐti | niːnɐti | ɬiːnɐti | məŋɐtem məŋɐti | nəŋɐti niŋɐti | ɬəɣɐti |
| Lative | mɐːntemɐ | nʉŋɐtinɐ nʉŋɐtenɐ nʉŋɐtijɐ | ɬʉβɐtiɬɐ ɬʉβɐtinɐ ɬʉβɐtɐ | miːnɐtemɐ miːntemɐ | niːnɐtinɐ niːnɐtenɐ niːnɐtijɐ | ɬiːnɐtiɬɐ ɬiːnɐtinɐ | məŋɐtinɐ məŋɐtemɐ | nəŋɐtinɐ nəŋɐtenɐ nəŋɐtijɐ | ɬəɣɐtiɬɐ ɬəɣɐtinɐ |
| Locative | mɐːntemnə mɐːnə, mɐːnnə mɐːn | nʉŋɐtinə nʉŋnə nʉŋən, nʉŋn | ɬʉβɐtiɬnə ɬʉβɐtinə ɬʉβnə, ɬʉβən | miːnɐtemnə miːntemnə miːnnə, miːnən | niːnɐtinnə niːnən | ɬiːnɐtiɬnə ɬiːnɐtinnə ɬiːnnə, ɬiːnən | məŋɐtemnə məŋɐtinnə məŋnə, məŋən | nəŋɐtinnə nəŋən, niŋnə | ɬəɣɐtiɬnə ɬəɣɐtinnə ɬəɣnə, ɬəɣən |
| Ablative | mɐːntemi mɐːni | nʉŋɐtini nʉŋɐteni nʉŋi | ɬʉβɐtiɬi ɬʉβɐtini ɬʉβɐti, ɬʉβi | miːnɐtemi miːntemi miːnɐti, miːni | niːnɐtini niːnɐteni niːni | ɬiːnɐtiɬi ɬiːnɐtini ɬiːnɐti, ɬiːni | məŋtemi məŋɐtini məŋɐti, məŋi | nəŋɐtini nəŋɐteni niŋɐtiji, nəŋi | ɬəɣɐtiɬi ɬəɣɐtini ɬəɣɐti, ɬəɣi |
| Aproximative | mɐːntemnɐm mɐːnnɐm | nʉŋɐtəɬnɐm nʉŋɐtinɐm nʉŋɐtenɐm nʉŋnɐm | ɬʉβɐtiɬnɐm ɬʉβɐtinɐm ɬʉβnɐm | miːnɐtemnɐm miːnɐtimənɐ miːnɐm | niːnɐtinɐm niːnɐtenɐm niːnɐnɐm | ɬiːnɐtiɬnɐm ɬiːnɐtinɐm ɬiːnɐtijɐt | məŋɐtemnɐm məŋɐtinɐm məŋnɐm | nəŋɐtinɐm niŋɐtinɐm nəŋɐtenɐm nəŋɐtijɐ | ɬəɣɐtiɬnɐm ɬəɣɐtinɐm ɬəɣnɐm |
| Translative | mɐːntemɣə mɐːnɣə | nʉŋɐtinɣə nʉŋɐtiɣə nʉŋɐtenɣə nʉŋkə | ɬʉβɐtiɬɣə ɬʉβɐtinɣə ɬʉβɐtiɣə ɬʉβkə | miːnɐtemɣə miːnɐtikkə miːnɣə | niːnɐtinɣə niːnɐtiɣə niːnɐtikkə niːnɣə | ɬiːnɐtiɬɣə ɬiːnɐtinɣə ɬiːnɐtikkə ɬiːnɣə | məŋtemɣə məŋɐtinɣə məŋɐtikkə məŋkə | nəŋɐtinɣə nəŋɐtiɣə nəŋɐtikkə nəŋkə | ɬəɣɐtiɬɣə ɬəɣɐtinɣə ɬəɣɐtikkə ɬəɣkə |
| Instructive | mɐːntemɐt | nʉŋɐtinɐt nʉŋɐtenɐt nʉŋɐtijɐt | ɬʉβɐtinɐt ɬʉβɐtiɬɐt ɬʉβɐtijɐt | miːntemɐt | niːnɐtinɐt niːnɐtenɐt niːnɐtijɐt | ɬiːnɐtinɐt ɬiːnɐtiɬɐt ɬiːnɐtijɐt | məŋɐtemɐt məŋɐteβɐt | nəŋɐtinɐt nəŋɐtenɐt nəŋɐtijɐt | ɬəɣɐtinɐt ɬəɣɐtiɬɐt ɬəɣɐtijɐt |
| Comitative | mɐːntemnɐt mɐːnnɐt | nʉŋɐtinɐt nʉŋɐtenɐt nʉŋnɐt | ɬʉβɐtiɬnɐt ɬʉβɐtəɬnɐt ɬʉβɐtinɐt ɬʉβnɐt | miːnɐtemnɐt miːntemnɐt miːnnɐt | niːnɐtinɐt niːnɐtenɐt niːnnɐt | ɬiːnɐtiɬɐt ɬiːnɐtinɐt ɬiːnnɐt | məŋɐtinɐt məŋɐtemnɐt məŋɐtiβnɐt məŋnɐt | nəŋɐtinɐt nəŋɐtenɐt nəŋnɐt | ɬəɣɐtiɬnɐt ɬəɣɐtinɐt ɬəɣnɐt |
| Abessive | mɐːntemɬəɣ | nʉŋɐtiɬəɣ nʉŋɐtinɬəɣ | ɬʉβɐtiɬəɣ | | | | | | |
| | | | possessee |
| | | | singular | dual | plural |
| possessor | 1st person | singular | -əm | -ɣəɬɐm | -ɬɐm |
| dual | 1st person | -imen | -ɣəɬəmən | -ɬəmən |
| plural | 1st person | -iβ | -ɣəɬəβ | -ɬəβ |
| 2nd person | singular | -ən, -ɐ, -ɛ | -ɣəɬɐ | -ɬɐ |
| 2nd person | dual | -n | -ɣəɬən | -ɬən |
| 2nd person | plural | -in | -ɣəɬən | -ɬən |
| 3rd person | singular | -əɬ | -ɣəɬ | -ɬɐɬ |
| 3rd person | dual | -in | -ɣəɬən | -ɬən |
| 3rd person | plural | -iɬ | -ɣəɬ | -ɬɐɬ |

## Morphology
### Verbs

Khanty verbs must agree with the subject in person and number. There are two paradigms for conjugation. One has the verb agree only with the subject (subjective conjugation column in the verbal suffixes table), and one has the verb agree with both the subject and the object (objective conjugation in the same table). In a sentence with both a subject and an object, the subjective conjugation puts the object in focus. A sentence with the objective conjugation puts the object as a topic.
Khanty has present and past tenses, indicative and imperative moods and passive and active voices. Generally, the present tense is marked, and the past is unmarked, but some verbs distinguish the present from the past by changing vowels or adding consonants. The order of suffixes is always tense-(passive.)number-person.
The on-finite verb forms are the infinitive, the converb and four participle verb forms. Infinitive can complement a modal verb or a motion verb such as go. If it is alone, necessity or possibility is meant.
The participles are present, past, negative and conditional. The first two are in use, and the last two are now scarcely used.

### Questions

Yes/no questions are marked only by intonation. Indirect yes/no questions are constructed with “or” : S/he asked if Misha was tired [or not]. Wh-questions most often contain a <<wh-word in the focus position.

### Negation

Negation is marked by the particle əntə, which appears adjacent to the verb and between the particles of particle verbs. That is different from other Uralic languages, which tend to have a negation verb or at least a negation particle that is inflected in some way.

## Syntax

Both Khanty and Mansi are basically nominative–accusative languages but have innovative morphological ergativity. In an ergative construction, the object is given the same case as the subject of an intransitive verb, and the locative is used for the agent of the transitive verb (as an instrumental). That may be used with some specific verbs such as for "to give", the literal translation would be "by me (subject) a fish (object) gave to you (indirect object)" for the equivalent of the sentence "I gave you a fish".
However, the ergative, since it is marked by using a case, is only morphological, not syntactic. In addition, it may be used in the passive voice in a way that resembles English. For example, in Mansi, the equivalent of "a dog (agent) bit you (object)" may be changed to "you (object) were bitten, by a dog (instrument)".
Khanty, an agglutinative language, has an SOV word order.

### Word order

On the phrasal level, the traditional relations are typical for an OV language. For example, prepositional phrases may be after the verb, manner adverbs are after verbs, verb phrases precedes auxiliaries and the possessor precedes the possessed.
On the sentence level, case alignment in Surgut Khanty clauses follows a nominative-accusative pattern. Both the subject and the object may be dropped if they are pragmatically inferable, possible even in the same sentence.
Khanty is usually a verb-final language, but about 10% of sentences have other phrases after the verb. The word order in matrix clauses is more variable but is quite strict in embedded clauses. Those constraints are caused by grammatical relations and discourse information. Those phrases used to havee content that was already introduced in the discourse. However, newly-introduced content may now be placed after the verb as well. Schön and Gugán speculate that to be caused by contact Russian.

### Imperative

Imperative clauses have the same structure as declarative sentences, apart from complex predicates, whose verb may precede the preverb. Prohibitive sentences include a prohibitive particle.

### Passive

The passive voice is achieved by moving phrases other than the subject into the subject position to focus on the agent its indefiniteness.

### Pro-drop

Nouns or pronouns may be dropped only if they are obvious from the context and marked by the verb.

## Lexicon

Tthe Khanty varieties have a relatively well-documented lexicon. The most extensive early source is Toivonen (1948), based on field records by K. F. Karjalainen from 1898 to 1901. An etymological interdialectal dictionary, covering all known material from pre-1940 sources, is Steinitz et al. (1966–1993).
Schiefer (1972) summarizes the etymological sources of Khanty vocabulary, as per Steinitz et al., as follows:
| Inherited | 30% | Uralic | 5% |
| Inherited | 30% | Finno-Ugric | 9% |
| Inherited | 30% | Ugric | 3% |
| Inherited | 30% | Ob-Ugric | 13% |
| Borrowed | 28% | Komi | 7% |
| Borrowed | 28% | Samoyedic (Selkup and Nenets) | 3% |
| Borrowed | 28% | Tatar | 10% |
| Borrowed | 28% | Russian | 8% |
| unknown | 40% |
Futaky (1975) additionally proposes a number of loanwords from the Tungusic languages, mainly Evenki.