# Satires (Juvenal)

The Satires (Latin: Saturae) are a collection of satirical poems by the Latin author Juvenal written between the end of the first and the early second centuries A.D.
Juvenal is credited with sixteen poems divided among five books; all are in the Roman genre of satire. The genre is defined by a wide-ranging discussion of society and social mores in dactylic hexameter. The sixth and tenth satires are some of the most renowned works in the collection.
* Book I: Satires 1–5
* Book II: Satire 6
* Book III: Satires 7–9
* Book IV: Satires 10–12
* Book V: Satires 13–16 (Satire 16 is incompletely preserved)
In a tone and manner ranging from irony to rage, Juvenal criticizes the actions and beliefs of many of his contemporaries, providing insight into value systems and questions of morality as opposed to the realities of Roman life. The author makes constant allusion to history and myth as a source of object lessons or exemplars of particular vices and virtues. Coupled with his dense and elliptical Latin, these references indicate that the intended reader of the Satires was highly educated. The Satires are concerned with perceived threats to the social continuity of the Roman citizens: socially ascendant foreigners, unfaithfulness, and other more extreme excesses of the Roman aristocracy.
Scholarly estimates for the dating of the individual books have varied. It is generally accepted that the fifth book must date to a point after 127, because of a reference to the Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Juncus in Satire 15. A recent scholar has argued that the first book should be dated to 100 or 101. Juvenal's works are contemporary with those of Martial, Tacitus and Pliny the Younger.

## Manuscript tradition

The controversies concerning the surviving texts of the Satires have been extensive and heated. Many manuscripts survive, but only P (the Codex Pithoeanus Montepessulanus), a 9th-century manuscript based on an edition prepared in the 4th century by a pupil of Servius Honoratus, the grammarian, is reasonably reliable. At the same time as the Servian text was produced, however, other and lesser scholars also created their editions of Juvenal: it is these on which most medieval manuscripts of Juvenal are based. It did not help matters that P disappeared sometime during the Renaissance and was only rediscovered around 1840. It is not, however, uncommon for the generally inferior manuscripts to supply a better reading in cases when P is imperfect. In addition, modern scholarly debate has also raged around the authenticity of the text which has survived, as various editors have argued that considerable portions are not, in fact, authentically Juvenalian and represent interpolations from early editors of the text. Jachmann (1943) argued that up to one-third of what survives is non-authentic: Ulrick Knoche (1950) deleted about hundred lines, Clausen about forty, Courtney (1975) a similar number. Willis (1997) italicizes 297 lines as being potentially suspect. On the other hand, Vahlen, Housman, Duff, Griffith, Ferguson and Green believe the surviving text to be largely authentic: indeed Green regards the main problem as being not interpolations but lacunae.
In recent times debate has focused on the authenticity of the "O Passage" of Satire VI, 36 lines (34 of which are continuous) discovered by E. O. Winstedt in an 11th-century manuscript in Oxford's Bodleian Library. These lines occur in no other manuscript of Juvenal, and when discovered were considerably corrupted. Ever since Housman translated and emended the "O Passage" there has been considerable controversy over whether the fragment is in fact a forgery: the field is currently split between those (Green, Ferguson, Courtney) who believe it is not, and those (Willis, Anderson), who believe it is.

## Genre

Juvenal is credited with sixteen known poems divided among five books; all are in the Roman genre of satire, which, at its most basic in the time of the author, comprised a wide-ranging discussion of society and social mores in dactylic hexameter. In Satire I, concerning the scope and content of his work, Juvenal says:
Juvenal claims as his purview, the entire gamut of human experience since the dawn of history. Quintilian—in the context of a discussion of literary genres appropriate for an oratorical education—claimed that, unlike so many literary and artistic forms adopted from Greek models, "satire at least is all ours" (satura quidem tota nostra est). At least in the view of Quintillian, earlier Greek satiric verse (e.g. that of Hipponax) or even Latin satiric prose (e.g. that of Petronius) did not constitute satura, per se. Roman Satura was a formal literary genre rather than being simply clever, humorous critique in no particular format.
* Book I: Satires 1–5
* Book II: Satire 6
* Book III: Satires 7–9
* Book IV: Satires 10–12
* Book V: Satires 13–16 (although Satire 16 is incomplete)
The individual Satires (excluding Satire 16) range in length from approximately 130 (Satire 12) to 695 (Satire 6) lines. The poems are not entitled individually, but translators often have added titles for the convenience of readers.

## Synopsis
### Book I

Satire 1 -- The first satire begins with the words, "semper ego auditor tantum..." (lit. 'always, I am only heard'). Within this satire, Juvenal says his disgust in the spread of moral corruption has driven him to write satire. He says, "difficile est saturam non scribere" (lit. 'it is difficult to not write satire'), since there is so much to criticize in Rome. He lists eunuchs getting married, elite women performing in a beast hunt, and the dregs of society suddenly becoming wealthy by gross acts of sycophancy, all as examples of widespread degeneracy. Overall, he sets the theme for his satires and emphasizes the power of it to expose wrongdoing-- crediting Lucilius in doing so.
Satire 2 -- The second satire opens, stating, "I would fain flee to Sarmatia and the frozen sea when people who ape the Curii and live like Bacchanals dare talk about morals". This satire largely attacks those who hide their vice beneath fake virtue and it targets homosexuals especially. In it, he also defames the emperor Otho for bringing cosmetics while he was on campaign, states that Gracchus, a noble, married another man, but will remain infertile despite any number of whippings during Lupercalia, and he also says the ghosts of great Romans would feel ill upon seeing such men in the Underworld.
Satire 3 -- The third satire describes the decision of Umbricius, Juvenal's friend, to depart from Rome. Narrated by Umbricius, it states that an honest man cannot survive in Rome and complains about how it is impossible to compete with Greeks and Orientals. Within this Satire, Juvenal calls Rome a, "a chaotic metropolis where life has become dangerous for honest men"
Satire 4 -- The fourth satire is a mock heroic epic, describing a council convened by Domitian. Starting off with an invocation to the muse of epic poetry, Calliope, it mocks the absurdity of the situation with a fake sense of importance. Within it, Juvenal is summoned to the council to determine how to cook the gigantic turbot (rhombus) given to Domitian as a gift. It also discusses various other events, such as Crispinus buying a singular mullet at the outrageous price of 6,000 sesterces.
Satire 5 -- The fifth satire describes the shame experienced by a client when his patron, Virro, finally decided to extend to him an invitation to his dinner party. it criticizes the client, stating that, "a poor man’s stomach is easy to please, yet you suffer insults at a dinner party just for a free meal". It also states that, though they are at the same table, they are being treated completely differently, with the client being given much worse food while Virro eats delicacies. Overall, this satire is a brutal commentary on the social inequality of ancient Rome, where the wealthy give their dependents the bare minimum in exchange for their loyalty.

### Book II

Satire 6 -- The sixth satire is Juvenal's longest, at 661 lines, and his most famous. Addressing a man, that Juvenal calls delusional enough to think about getting married, he expounds the immorality and 'vices' of women. In it, he claims that women are unfaithful, and that they relentlessly seek abortions, murder their stepchildren, and use potions to drive their husbands insane. Thus he proposes suicide as a 'painless alternative' to marriage. Two noteworthy phrases from this satire are 'rara avis', (lit. 'rare bird'), which refers to good women as a black swan, or hard to come by, and another is the line 'quis custodiet ipsos custodes', (lit. 'who will guard the guards themselves').

### Book III

Satire 7 -- The seventh satire laments the decline of intellectual pursuits and the miserable circumstances of contemporary authors, pining for the patronage enjoyed by . Opening with a prayer for better treatment of scholars under a new emperor, possibly Hadrian, the satire criticizes how learned men are underpaid while public entertainers, like the actor Paris, are excessively compensated. This actor, Paris, may have been the man that he was possibly exiled for slandering.
Satire 8 -- The eighth satire takes issue with the idea that noble birth defines a person’s worth, stating that true nobility comes from virtue, not their pedigree. Juvenal argues that relying on the achievements of one's ancestors is meaningless if the individual is inferior to them. He points out that many nobles do nothing to earn their status, likening it to racehorses valued for their speed rather than their lineage—if they are slow, they are sent to pull carts. Thus, Juvenal implies that if a noble is inferior, he should be regarded as so, as well. Furthermore, he criticizes Nero, stating that he utterly debased himself in spending lavishly on sports.
Satire 9 -- The ninth satire is a conversation between the narrator and Naevolus, a male prostitute who is upset that his hard work isn’t paying off. Naevolus talks about serving rich, effeminate men who do not want to spend money on his services. Naevolus also talks about how he saved one man’s marriage, but now the man wants someone else. To which, the narrator tells him that rich men have no secrets and that he will always find a patron, and Naevolus worries about growing older and losing his appeal.

### Book IV

Satire 10 -- The tenth satire focuses on the foolishness of human desires, showing how things like wealth, power, beauty, long life, and even children, are not truly good in themselves. Juvenal argues that these desires can often lead to harm. For example, wealth can destroy, power is fleeting, and even fame or military glory can bring ruin. Juvenal highlights examples like Sejanus, Hannibal, and Alexander the Great to show how these worldly pursuits end in disappointment, even if they were less of a disappointment than him. The satire ends by suggesting that instead of seeking these things, people should trust the gods to choose what’s best for them. The famous phrase "mens sana in corpore sano" (lit. a healthy mind in a healthy body) is found within this satire.
Satire 11 -- The eleventh satire focuses on moderation, mainly in food and the Roman cena (formal dinner). Juvenal contrasts the lavish spending habits of gourmands with the simplicity and moderation of a meal made from home-grown foods. In the first section, he criticizes those who refuse to spend less on luxuries, even at the cost of going into debt, and urges the wisdom of Apollo’s advice to “know thyself,” not just in aspirations, but in what one spends on food. The narrator then invites a friend, Persicus, to his house to demonstrate his own moderation, serving only simple foods from his Tiburtine land. He talks about how ancient Romans, like the noble Curius, were content with humble food, while modern wealthy people demand luxuries like ivory tables and professional meat carvers. Instead of a pornographic Spanish dance show, Juvenal says the evening’s entertainment after the dinner will be poetry.
Satire 12 -- The twelfth satire features a narrator describing to Corvinus the vows he made to the Roman gods-- Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva— along with his Lares (family gods) to ensure the safety of his friend Catullus during a dangerous storm at sea. Despite the threat of the storm, which led Catullus to sacrifice valuable possessions for his life, the narrator says that his sacrifices are not for personal gain-- unlike the legacy hunters who might sacrifice anything, including slaves or children, to secure an inheritance. After the storm, the sailors managed to reach the port at Ostia, and the narrator prepares an altar to make his offerings. The narrator clarifies that since Catullus has heirs, his actions in helping Catullus are motivated by friendship, not by a desire for wealth.

### Book V

Satire 13 -- The thirteenth satire is a reflection on the dangers of revenge when one is wronged. The narrator begins by stating that guilt is its own punishment and he suggests that experience can help defend against the whims of Fortuna. He also acknowledges that the world is corrupt and that the Golden Age was vastly superior to the present (a point he brought up in Satire 7 as well). Juvenal also points out that financial loss is often mourned more than death itself and he criticizes people that are surprised by the scale of crime in Rome, likening it to being surprised by a German with blue eyes. He also calls revenge foolish, citing philosophers like Chrysippos, Thales, and Socrates, who would not endorse such actions. He also references a story from Herodotus about a corrupt Spartan consulting the Oracle at Delphi, stating that merely intending to do evil makes one immediately guilty.
Satire 14 -- The fourteenth satire says that children learn vice from their parents, stressing the injustice of a father punishing a son for imitating his own faults. Juvenal says that people are more concerned with presenting a clean atrium to guests than with maintaining a virtuous household for their children, and gives various examples, such as Caetronius and his son both squandering wealth on extravagant houses, and stating that religious customs, like Judaism, are learned from one's parents. Juvenal claims that avaricious individuals risk their lives for these unimportant gains, for example, how Alexander the Great's realization that Diogenes, content with little, was happier than he. Ultimately, the satire says that truly being content lies in possessing as much as Epicurus or Socrates found sufficient, or, in Roman terms, a modest fortune within the equestrian order; if such wealth does not satisfy, then Juvenal states that not even the riches of Croesus or Persia will be enough.
Satire 15 -- The fifteenth satire talks about the importance of compassion in maintaining civilization. Juvenal states that while extreme circumstances have sometimes forced people into desperate actions for survival, even the most savage societies have historically refrained from cannibalism. He recounts a recent incident in Upper Egypt where two rival cities, consumed by hatred, escalated a minor conflict into full-blown violence, leading to the horrific act of eating a fallen enemy raw. In contrast, Juvenal says that the Vascones, besieged by Pompey, resorted to cannibalism only out of necessity, and even the infamous human sacrifices at the altar of Artemis in Taurus did not involve consumption of flesh. At the end, Juvenal says that compassion is what makes humans and animals different, along with our ability to cry, as people are endowed not only with life but also with reason, enabling them to build civilization.
Satire 16 -- The sixteenth satire discusses the advantnages that soldiers enjoy over ordinary citizens. Juvenal says that soldiers are immune to civilian justice, as any legal action against them must take place within the camp, where a plaintiff stands little chance and may even face violence for their efforts. Unlike civilians, soldiers are not subjected to the delays of the legal system and possess the right to make a will while their father is still alive-- an inversion of the usual family hierarchy that places the son, a soldier, above his own father. This satire, although left incomplete due to only 60 lines being preserved, showed Juvenal's expertise in law and adds credit to him possibly working in the legal system prior to writing his Satires.

## Modern criticism and historical context

While Juvenal's mode of satire has been noted from antiquity for its wrathful scorn toward all representatives of social deviance, some politically progressive scholars, such as William S. Anderson and later Susanna M. Braund, have attempted to defend his work as that of a rhetorical persona (mask), taken up by the author to critique the very attitudes he appears to be exhibiting in his works.
In any case it would be an error to read the Satires as a literal account of normal Roman life and thought in the late first and early second centuries CE, just as it would be an error to give credence to every slander recorded in Suetonius against the members of prior imperial dynasties. Themes similar to those of the Satires are present in authors spanning the period of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire ranging from Cicero and Catullus to Martial and Tacitus; similarly, the stylistics of Juvenal's text fall within the range of post-Augustan literature, as represented by Persius, Statius, and Petronius.
Juvenal's Satires, giving several accounts of Jewish life in first-century Rome, have been regarded by scholars, such as J. Juster and, more recently, Peter Nahon, as a valuable source about early Judaism.

## Literary and cultural influence

The Satires have inspired many authors, including Samuel Johnson, who modeled his "London" on Satire III and his "The Vanity of Human Wishes" on Satire X. Alexander Theroux, whose novels are rife with vicious satire, identified Juvenal as his most important influence. Juvenal also provided a source for the name for a forensically important beetle, Histeridae. Juvenal is the source of many well-known maxims, including:
* that the common people—rather than caring about their freedom—are only interested in "bread and circuses" (panem et circenses 10.81; i.e. food and entertainment),
* that—rather than for wealth, power, eloquence, or children—one should pray for a "sound mind in a sound body" (mens sana in corpore sano 10.356),
* that a perfect wife is a "rare bird" (rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cycno 6.165; a rare bird in the earth, a modified form of which is the modern phrase "a black swan", since black swans are rarer than white.)
* that "honesty is praised and left out in the cold" Probitas laudatur et alget (I, line 74).
* and the troubling question of who can be trusted with power—"who will watch the watchers?" or "who will guard the guardians themselves?" (quis custodiet ipsos custodes 6.347–48).
ASICS, the footwear and sports equipment manufacturing company, is named after the acronym of the Latin phrase "anima sana in corpore sano" (a sound mind in a sound body) from Satire X by Juvenal (10.356).
In his autobiography, the German writer Heinrich Böll notes that in the high school he attended when growing up under Nazi rule, an anti-Nazi teacher paid special attention to Juvenal: "Mr. Bauer realized how topical Juvenal was, how he dealt at length with such phenomena as arbitrary government, tyranny, corruption, the degradation of public morals, the decline of the Republican ideal and the terrorizing acts of the Praetorian Guards. (...) In a second-hand bookshop I found an 1838 translation of Juvenal with an extensive commentary, twice the length of the translated text itself, written at the height of the Romantic period. Though its price was more than I could really afford, I bought it. I read all of it very intensely, as if it was a detective novel. It was one of the few books to which I persistently held on throughout the war and beyond, even when most of my other books were lost or sold on the black market".