OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# First relation letter from Pedro de Valdivia to emperor Charles V

The First relation letter from Pedro de Valdivia to emperor Charles V is one of the six Letters of relation written by Pedro de Valdivia to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor by his name in the Holy Roman Empire in which he relates his journey to Chile and the conquest of that land. This first letter was dated on 20 August 1545, the late winter of the southern hemisphere. It differs from other letters sent from conquistadores to Charles V by emphasizing the difficulties, called "trabajos", literally "works" in the letter, of conquest.
   It [Chile] has four months of winter, no more, and in them, except when there is a quarter moon, when it rains one or two days, all the other days have such a beautiful sunshine that is not necessary to resort to fire. The summer is so temperate, with delicious airs, that man can go all day under the sun. It is rich in pastures and cultivated fields, in which all kind of animals and plants can be bred or grown, there is plenty of very beautiful wood for making houses, and plenty of firewood, and rich gold mines, and all land is full of them...
# Nowshera Virkan Tehsil

Nowshera Virkan (Urdu: نوشہره وِركاں) is a town and a tehsil situated to the west of the industrial city of Gujranwala, in Punjab, Pakistan. Nowshera Virkan is a hub of rice-growing villages.

## History

Nowshera Virkan has been a center of political activities from its earliest days. It was dominated by Arain, Rajput, Jutt, Arain, and Syed families. It is located in the Gujranwala District and is one of the largest of the four tehsils (administrative divisions). It lies between three large cities: Gujranwala, Hafizabad, and Sheikhupura. The dominant surnames of the Nowshera Virkan people are from military castes, including Arain, Bhuttah, Maan, Rajput, Virk, Syed and Goraya clans.

### Elections

Ijaz Khan was among the known leaders of this region. He was elected four times as a Member of the National Assembly (MNA) from this region and was affiliated with the Pakistan Muslim League (N). After his death, his son Chaudhry Bilal Ijaz was elected MNA at age 25 in 2002 from Pakistan Muslim League (Q), defeating Hamid Nasir Chattha. Later in 2008, Mudassir Qayyum Nahra, a Member of the Provincial Assembly (MPA) from PP-102 in 2002–2008, won the seat, but was disqualified and jailed in 2010 for bearing a fake degree. In the 2010 by-elections, Chaudry Tussadiq Masud Khan (Pakistan Peoples Party), a member of the Rajput clan, was elected as MNA. In 2013 and 2018, Azhar Qayyum Nahra (PMLN), brother of Mudassir Nahra, won the seat, due to PMLN's overall stronghold in Gujranwala region. Bilal Ijaz contested both 2013 and 2018 elections on PTI (Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf) ticket but was unsuccessful. The Nahra family is facing charges from the National Accountability Bureau (NAB) for bearing assets beyond income sources. In recent 2024 elections, Bilal Ijaz defeated Azhar Qayyum Nahra, on the ticket of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI).

## Towns

Nowshera Virkan Tehsil has many small Towns such as Garmula Virkan, Jago Wala New, Phamma Sraa, Tatly Aali, Nokhar, Kot Ladha, Jalhan, Bhiri Shah Rahman, Majo Chak, Karyal kalan, Mattu Bhaiky, Artali Virkan, Pirthi Pur, Mangoki Virkan, Buddha Goraya, Leel Virkan, Aulakh Bhaike, Chandhar Kalan, Hardouday virkan and Khan Musalman.

## Demographics
### Population

According to the 2023 census, Nowshera Virkan Tehsil in Gujranwala District, Punjab, Pakistan, has a population of approximately 640,780, with an average annual growth rate of 3.21% since 2017. The tehsil covers an area of 678 square kilometers, resulting in a population density of about 945.10 people per square kilometer. The literacy rate in Nowshera Virkan Tehsil is 71.36%. The tehsil includes the Municipal Council of Nowshera Virkan, which had a population of 59,639 in 2023.
# Zena Skinner

Zena Skinner (27 February 1927 – 6 March 2018) was a British chef, writer, and cookery expert on television and radio.

## Early life

Skinner was from Luton, Bedfordshire. Her father owned an electroplating company.

## Career

Skinner served in the Women's Royal Naval Service and decoded signals at Portsmouth during World War II. After the war, she worked as a demonstrator at the Eastern Electricity Board showroom in Royston; she also demonstrated electrical appliances in Jamaica and East Africa. While working in Kenya, she met Queen Elizabeth II, and her appearance in publicity photos, serving cakes to Maasai men, led her into television work.
Her first TV appearance was in 1959. She presented daytime cookery programmes for the BBC and, later, Channel 4, through the 1960s and 1970s. Her style tended to the homely and economical, "relaxed and friendly", without fancy techniques or exotic ingredients. She also contributed to the Radio Times, and wrote several cookery books, including Zena Skinner's Book of Recipes (1968) and Zena Skinner's Down to Earth Cookbook (1982).
Skinner was a brand ambassador for Tupperware products. In 1970 she appeared in a Sainsbury's film, "Quick Change", about the shopping and the change to decimal currency. She appeared as a castaway on the BBC Radio programme Desert Island Discs, on 3 March 1969. She founded a charity, Keech Hospice Care, in Luton and raised funds for it.

## Personal life

Skinner retired from television in 1989 and lived in Redbourn, Hertfordshire. She died on 6 March 2018, aged 91 years, a year after her brother Bruce, at the hospice they both supported in Luton.
# Zelig Kalmanovich

Zelig Hirsch Kalmanovich (Latvian: Zēligs Hiršs Kalmanovičs; Russian: Зе́лик-Гирш Фа́йвушевич Калмано́вич) (1885–1944) was a Litvak Jewish philologist, translator, historian, and community archivist of the early 20th century. He was a renowned scholar of Yiddish. In 1929 he settled in Vilnius where he became an early director of YIVO.
He was incarcerated in the Vilna Ghetto where he became an observant Jew. During his time in the ghetto, Kalmanovich kept a secret diary which is one of the few primary sources recording day-to-day life. His diary stressed the efforts of the community to retain their humanity in the face of oppression. For example, on October 11, 1942, he wrote the following entry in his diary:
   On Simhat Torah eve at the invitation of the rabbi, I went for services in a house that had formerly been a synagogue and was now a music school ... I said a few words: 'Our song and dance are a form of worship. Our rejoicing is due to Him who decrees life and death. Here in the midst of this small congregation, in the poor and ruined synagogue, we are united with the whole house of Israel, not only with those who are here today ... And you in your rejoicing, atone for the sins of a generation that is perishing. I know that the Jewish people will live ... And every day the Holy One, blessed be He, in His mercy gives us a gift which we accept with joy and give thanks to His holy name.
During the Nazi occupation, he was forced to work at the YIVO offices under Nazi supervision, sorting through the pillaged contents of Vilna's libraries and preparing selected volumes for shipment to Germany; these labourers, known as the Paper Brigade, managed to save a portion of these documents from destruction. He was sent to the Vaivara concentration camp in Estonia, where he died in 1944.

## Works
### Translations

* Simon Dubnow. Algemeyne Idishe geshikhte: fun di eltste tsaytn biz der nayer tsayt. Vilnius: Historisher farlag, 1920. (Translation from German of Weltgeschichte des Jüdischen Volkes)
* Jaroslav Hašek. Der braver soldat Shveyk in der velt-milkhome, vols. 1–2. Riga: Bikher far alemen, 1921, 1928. (Translation from Czech to Yiddish of Osudy dobrého vojáka Švejka za světové války.)
* Max Brod. Di froy fun undzer beynkshaft: roman. Riga: Bikher far alemen, 1928. (Translation from German to Yiddish of Die Frau, nach der man sich sehnt.)
# Dominique Goblet

Dominique Goblet (Brussels, 8 July 1967) is a Belgian visual artist, illustrator and pioneer of the European graphic novel. She lives and works in Brussels.
Her work can be defined as experimental, varied in style, poetic and often biographical.

## Biography

Goblet studied visual arts at l'Institut Saint-Luc and a course in illustration from 1987 to 1990. She acquired teaching qualifications in English and the arts between 2001 and 2003.
Goblet was raised in a bilingual family. Her French-speaking father Jean Lieve Goblet was a fireman and died in 1998; her mother was Flemish. Her lover Guy-Marc Hinant occasionally attributes texts to her work.
Her debut Portraits Crachés (1997) is a compilation of stories and illustrations that appeared earlier in Frigorevue magazine. In Souvenir d'une journée parfaite (2001) the fictional character Mathias Khan forms the link between a young woman and her dead father. The book originated from a workshop entitled Récits de villes by Frigobox magazine. More than ten years of preparation went into creating Faire semblant c'est mentir (2007). The story brings together two autobiographical elements: youth experiences with alcoholism and child abuse and a lover plagued by the memory of a previous relationship. Fear and competition are the dark themes of the Les Hommes Loups. Chronographie (2010) bundles together portraits of Goblet and her daughter Nikita (born in 1990) made of each other in the course of ten years. The female protagonist of Plus si entente (2014) searches on dating sites for men who can lend a hand around the house and in the garden. Goblet's books have been translated into Dutch, English, German and Norwegian.
Alongside graphic novels Goblet publishes short stories in various magazines and her work appears in compilations. For instance she took part in "Comix 2000", a one-off 2000 pages long compilation of wordless drawn stories by more than three hundred artists published in 1999 by L'Association at the occasion of the new millennium.
In September 2015 an exhibition of drawings from the latest book Plus si entente by herself and the Berlin artist Kai Pfeiffer at the Nabokov Museum in St. Petersburg was initially censored and shortly after dismantled by order of the University of St. Petersburg.
# Ronald Winckworth

Ronald Winckworth (1884 – 6 September 1950) was a British natural historian who became president or vice-president of three learned societies in the field, and who wrote on the topic of British and Indian mollusca.

## Life

Winckworth was born in Brighton in 1884 and attended Epsom College. He then taught in Weymouth (1902), Eastbourne (1903–1905) and at St. Bees School (1905–1906) before winning an open exhibition to Jesus College, Oxford. He then taught at Radley College and Wellington College (1911) and Brighton Technical School (1912–1914). He served in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve during the First World War, reaching the rank of paymaster lieutenant, before working at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Plymouth. After teaching navigation at Pangbourne Nautical College, he worked for the Royal Society on publications, later becoming librarian, assistant secretary (1932–1937) and assistant editor (1937–1944). After retiring in 1944, he carried out occasional work as consultant editor.
He was a member of the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland from 1913 onwards, serving as President (1930–1931). His paper on British marine mollusca, his presidential address, was the most cited of his many writings, which were mainly on British and Indian mollusca. He became a member of the Malacological Society of London in 1919, later becoming its editor, and serving as President (1939–1942). He was a member of the Linnean Society from 1935 onwards, serving on the council from 1943 and as Vice President (1945–1947). He was also a Fellow of the Zoological Society and Royal Geographical Society. He died on 6 September 1950.
# Man of Steel, Woman of Kleenex

"Man of Steel, Woman of Kleenex" is a 1969 essay in which science fiction author Larry Niven details the problems that Superman would face in sexual intercourse and reproduction with a human woman, using arguments based on humorous reconciliation between physics, biology and the abilities of Kryptonians as presented in Superman comic books.

## Summary

The issues discussed include Superman's loss of physical control during intercourse, the presumed "super powers" of Superman's sperm cells, genetic incompatibility between humans and Kryptonians and the dangers the woman would face during gestation.
The title is a reference to the power and invulnerability indicated by Superman's epithet "Man of Steel", contrasting it with the relative fragility – like Kleenex brand facial tissue – of a human. The hypothetical woman is referred to in the essay as "LL", the initials of three women Superman has been romantically involved with: Lois Lane, Lana Lang and Lori Lemaris.

## Publication history

The essay was first published in the men's magazine Knight in 1969, then collected in Niven's 1971 collection, All the Myriad Ways. It was republished in the 1978 anthology SuperHeroes edited by Michel Parry and noted with a starburst on the cover: "SPECIAL BONUS FEATURE! Intimate details of Superman's sex life revealed!" It was reprinted in the 1990 Niven compilation N-Space. It was published with softcore illustrations by classic Superman artist Curt Swan, with the character's identifying features and logo obscured, and conspicuous trademark/copyright disclaimers, in a 1995 issue of Penthouse Comix.
In 1986, it was posted to Usenet, leading to an early debate about online copyright violation.
# Genesius, Count of Clermont

Genesius, Count of Clermont (died 725) was a noble of Gaul and reputed miracle worker. He was said to be Count of Auvergne. His residence was at Combronde.
According to the lessons of the Breviary of the Chapter of Camaleria (Acta Sanctorum June, I, 497), he was of noble birth; his father's name is given as Audastrius, and his mother's is Tranquilla. He was probably a relative of Bishop Genesius.
Even in his youth he is said to have wrought miracles—to have given sight to the blind and cured the lame. He built and richly endowed several churches and religious houses.
The "Martyrdom of Praeiectus" says that when the bishopric of Clermont became vacant, King Childeric had sent edicts to elect Count Genesius, but he turned down the see. Prix then became bishop. Partly by his own ample patrimony, and partly by the great liberalities of Genesius, the holy count of Auvergne, Prix was able to found several monasteries, churches, and hospitals.
Genesius was a friend of Bonitus, Bishop of Clermont, and of Meneleus, Abbot of Menat. He was buried at Combronde by Savinian, successor of Meneleus.
He is a Catholic saint, feast day 5 June.
# List of proposed canals

This article lists proposed or uncompleted canals.

## List of canals

| Name | Location | Purpose | Status |
| Danube–Bucharest Canal | Romania | Connect Bucharest with the Danube and the Black Sea via the existing Danube–Black Sea Canal | Started in 1986, paused |
| Istanbul Canal | Turkey | Connect the Black and Aegean seas; alternate to Bosporus | Started in June 2021 |
| Eurasia Canal | Russia, Kuma-Manych Depression | Connect the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea | Proposed |
| Nicaragua Canal | Nicaragua | Connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, alternative of Panama Canal | Proposed |
| Sulawesi Canal | Indonesia | Connect the Gulf of Tomini with the Makassar Strait | Proposed |
| Thai Canal | Thailand | Cut across the Kra Isthmus | Proposed |
| Salwa Canal | Saudi Arabia | Shipping and tourism canal along the border with Qatar | Proposed |
| Iranrud Waterway | Iran | Connect the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea through Iran | Abandoned |
| Northern river reversal | Russia | Divert the flow of the Northern rivers from the Arctic Ocean | Abandoned in 1986 |
# February 1981 Ronald Reagan speech to a joint session of Congress

Ronald Reagan, the 40th president of the United States, addressed a joint session of the United States Congress on Wednesday, February 18, 1981. It was his first public address before a joint session. Like a State of the Union Address, it was delivered before the 97th United States Congress in the Chamber of the United States House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. Presiding over this joint session was the House speaker, Tip O'Neill, accompanied by George H. W. Bush, the vice president in his capacity as the president of the Senate.
The speech was referred to as the "Speech on the Program for Economic Recovery." During his speech, President Reagan outlined his plan for economic recovery, calling for large cuts to taxes and federal spending. Some observers described it at the time as the most comprehensive economic proposal since President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced his New Deal program in March 1933. When President Reagan handed House Speaker Tip O’Neill the printed copy, O’Neill reportedly said, "Mr. President, good luck."
Secretary of Education Terrel Bell was the designated survivor and did not attend the address in order to maintain a continuity of government.
No response to this address was given by the Democratic Party.
# 1982 State of the Union Address

The 1982 State of the Union Address was given by the 40th president of the United States, Ronald Reagan, on January 26, 1982, at 9:00 p.m. EST, in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives to the 97th United States Congress. It was Reagan's first State of the Union Address and his second speech to a joint session of the United States Congress. Presiding over this joint session was the House speaker, Tip O'Neill, accompanied by George H. W. Bush, the vice president in his capacity as the president of the Senate.
The speech lasted 40 minutes and 14 seconds and contained 5154 words. The address was broadcast live on radio and television.
The speech was the first to acknowledge a special guest, Lenny Skutnik, who was an ordinary hero of Air Florida Flight 90 took place two weeks earlier. Taking the place of Supreme Court Justice Byron White was retired Justice Potter Stewart.
The Democratic Party response was delivered by Senator Donald Riegle (MI), Senator James Sasser (TN), Rep. Albert Gore Jr. (TN), Senator Robert Byrd (WV), Senator Edward Kennedy (MA), House Speaker Thomas P. O'Neill III (MA), Senator Gary Hart (CO), Senator Paul Sarbanes (MD), Senator J. Bennett Johnston (LA), and Senator Alan Cranston (CA).
# 1984 State of the Union Address

The 1984 State of the Union Address was given by the 40th president of the United States, Ronald Reagan, on January 25, 1984, at 9:00 p.m. EST, in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives to the 98th United States Congress. It was Reagan's third State of the Union Address and his fourth speech to a joint session of the United States Congress. Presiding over this joint session was the House speaker, Tip O'Neill, accompanied by George H. W. Bush, the vice president in his capacity as the president of the Senate.
The speech lasted 43 minutes and 2 seconds and contained 4931 words. The address was broadcast live on radio and television.
The Democratic Party response was delivered by Senator Joe Biden (DE), Sen. David Boren (OK), Senator Carl M. Levin (MI), Senator Max S. Baucus (MT), Senator Robert Byrd (WV), Senator Claiborne Pell (RI), Senator Walter Huddleston (KY), Rep. Dante B. Fascell (FL), Rep. Tom Harkin (IA), Rep. William Gray (PA), House Speaker Thomas O’Neill (MA), and Rep. Barbara Boxer (CA).
Samuel Pierce, the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, served as the designated survivor.
# 1987 State of the Union Address

The 1987 State of the Union Address was given by the 40th president of the United States, Ronald Reagan, on January 27, 1987, at 9:00 p.m. EST, in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives to the 100th United States Congress. It was Reagan's sixth State of the Union Address and his seventh speech to a joint session of the United States Congress. Presiding over this joint session was the House speaker, Jim Wright, accompanied by George H. W. Bush, the vice president in his capacity as the president of the Senate.
Progressing to the Afghanistan situation, he says: "The Soviet Union says it wants a peaceful settlement in Afghanistan, yet it continues a brutal war and props up a regime whose days are clearly numbered. We are ready to support a political solution that guarantees the rapid withdrawal of all Soviet troops and genuine self-determination for the Afghan people." He ended with, "But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun." Well, you can bet it's rising because, my fellow citizens, America isn't finished. Her best days have just begun." The speech lasted 34 minutes and 39 seconds and contained 3847 words. The address was broadcast live on radio and television. The Democratic Party response was delivered by Senator Robert Byrd (WV), and House Speaker Jim Wright (TX)
Richard Lyng, the Secretary of Agriculture, served as the designated survivor.
# Rank-dependent expected utility

The rank-dependent expected utility model (originally called anticipated utility) is a generalized expected utility model of choice under uncertainty, designed to explain the behaviour observed in the Allais paradox, as well as for the observation that many people both purchase lottery tickets (implying risk-loving preferences) and insure against losses (implying risk aversion).
A natural explanation of these observations is that individuals overweight low-probability events such as winning the lottery, or suffering a disastrous insurable loss. In the Allais paradox, individuals appear to forgo the chance of a very large gain to avoid a one per cent chance of missing out on an otherwise certain large gain, but are less risk averse when offered the chance of reducing an 11 per cent chance of loss to 10 per cent.
A number of attempts were made to model preferences incorporating probability theory, most notably the original version of prospect theory, presented by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky (1979). However, all such models involved violations of first-order stochastic dominance. In prospect theory, violations of dominance were avoided by the introduction of an 'editing' operation, but this gave rise to violations of transitivity.
The crucial idea of rank-dependent expected utility was to overweigh only unlikely extreme outcomes, rather than all unlikely events. Formalising this insight required transformations to be applied to the cumulative probability distribution function, rather than to individual probabilities (Quiggin, 1982, 1993).
The central idea of rank-dependent weightings was then incorporated by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky into prospect theory, and the resulting model was referred to as cumulative prospect theory (Tversky & Kahneman, 1992).

## Formal representation

As the name implies, the rank-dependent model is applied to the increasing rearrangement $\mathbf {y} _{[\;]}$ of $\mathbf {y}$ which satisfies $y_{[1]}\leq y_{[2]}\leq ...\leq y_{[S]}$.
$W(\mathbf {y} )=\sum _{s\in \Omega }h_{[s]}(\mathbf {\pi } )u(y_{[s]})$ where $\mathbf {\pi } \in \Pi ,u:\mathbb {R} \rightarrow \mathbb {R} ,$ and $h_{[s]}(\mathbf {\pi } )$ is a probability weight such that $h_{[s]}(\mathbf {\pi } )=q\left(\sum \limits _{t=1}^{s}\pi _{[t]}\right)-q\left(\sum \limits _{t=1}^{s-1}\pi _{[t]}\right)$ and $h_{[S]}(\mathbf {\pi } )=q\left(\pi _{[S]}\right)$
for a transformation function $q:[0,1]\rightarrow [0,1]$ with $q(0)=0$, $q(1)=1$.
Note that $\sum _{s\in \Omega }h_{[s]}(\mathbf {\pi } )=q\left(\sum \limits _{t=1}^{S}\pi _{[t]}\right)=q(1)=1$ so that the decision weights sum to 1.