# Captaincy General of Chile

33°27′00″S 70°40′00″W﻿ / ﻿33.45°S 70.666667°W﻿ / -33.45; -70.666667
The General Captaincy of Chile (Capitanía General de Chile), Governorate of Chile, or Kingdom of Chile, was a territory of the Spanish Empire from 1541 to 1818 that was, initially, part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It comprised most of modern-day Chile and southern parts of Argentina in the Patagonia region. Its capital was Santiago de Chile. In 1810 it declared itself independent, with the Spanish reconquering the territory in 1814, but in 1818 it gained independence as the Republic of Chile. It had a number of Spanish governors over its long history and several kings.

## Name

The Captaincy General of Chile was incorporated to the Crown of Castile as were all the other Spanish possessions in the New World. The Captaincy General of Chile was first known as New Extremadura (a name subsequently given to a part of Mexico) and then as Indian Flanders.
Benjamin Vicuna Mackena noted that Chile has always been officially and unofficially the Kingdom of Chile. In the 16th century Pedro Marino de Lobera, “Corregidor de Valdivia”, 1575 wrote the Chronicles of the Kingdom of Chile. Other publications of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries confirm the name and/or status of what is known as the Kingdom. However, although the status of kingdom was officially used and recognised in Court the jurisdiction of the kingdom was still under Spanish control for most of its existence, later it became a republic.
The administrative apparatus of the Captaincy General of Chile was subordinate to the Council of the Indies and the Laws of the Indies, like the other Spanish colonial possessions. The day-to-day work was handled mostly by viceroys and governors, who represented the king in the overseas territories. The areas of the Americas, which had been the site of complex civilizations or became rich societies were usually referred to by the Spanish as "kingdoms".

## History
### Exploration and conquest

In 1536 Diego de Almagro formed the first expedition to explore the territories to the south of the Inca Empire, which had been granted to him as the Governorship of New Toledo. After Almargo's death, Pedro de Valdivia solicited and was granted in 1539 the right to explore and conquer the area with Francisco Pizarro's approval. Valdivia founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo and a few months later its cabildo (municipal council) appointed him governor and Captain General of New Extremadura on June 11, 1541. Other cities founded during Valdivia's administration were Concepción in 1550, La Imperial in 1551, Santa María Magdalena de Villa Rica and Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia in 1552, and the following year Los Confines and Santiago del Estero on the eastern side of the Andes. In 1553 Valdivia also founded a series of forts for protection of the settled areas: San Felipe de Araucan, San Juan Bautista de Purén and San Diego de Tucapel. After Valdivia's death that same year, these last forts, Villarica and Concepcion were lost. they were recovered following the war with Lautaro and Caupolicán. Following the defeat of the Mapuche by García Hurtado de Mendoza, settlements continued to grow and more cities were founded: Cañete de la Frontera on the site of the former Fort San Diego de Tucapel and Villa de San Mateo de Osorno in 1558, San Andrés de Angol in 1560, Ciudad de Mendoza del Nuevo Valle de La Rioja in 1561, San Luis de Loyola Nueva Medina de Rioseco and San Juan de la Frontera in 1562, and Santiago de Castro in 1567. Martín García Óñez de Loyola founded a last city south of the Bio Bio River, Santa Cruz de Coya, in 1595.

### Collapse of southern Chile

A Mapuche revolt was triggered following the news of the battle of Curalaba on the 23 of December 1598, where the vice toqui Pelantaru and his lieutenants Anganamon and Guaiquimilla with three hundred men ambushed and killed the Spanish governor Martín García Óñez de Loyola and nearly all his companions.
Over the next few years the Mapuche were able to destroy or force the abandonment of seven Spanish cities in Mapuche territory: Santa Cruz de Coya (1599), Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia (1599), San Andrés de Los Infantes (1599), La Imperial (1600), Santa María Magdalena de Villa Rica (1602), San Mateo de Osorno (1602), and San Felipe de Araucan (1604).

### 17th century: Consolidation of the kingdom

In the 17th century, the Spanish overseas territory of Chile saw a rearrangement of its population center. While in the 16th century, most of the cities founded by the Spanish were located from Bio-Bio southward, with only Santiago, La Serena and some transandine cities located north of it, in the 17th century, Spanish authority and settlements were abandoned down south of Bío-Bío Region. The kingdom went from being a gold exporter with potential for expanding to the Strait of Magellan to being one of the Spanish Empire's most problematic and poor in natural resources. The Spanish Empire had to divert silver from Potosí to finance a standing army in Chile to fight in the Arauco War. Since the raids of Francis Drake in Chilean waters more seaborne assaults followed in the 17th century, mostly from Dutch corsairs. The Spanish Empire's attempts to block the entrance to the Pacific Ocean by fortifying the Straits of Magellan were abandoned after the discovery of Hoces Sea, focusing then on fortifying the coastal cities of Chile, a tactic that later was proven to be more affordable and effective in combating piracy while keeping the area under Spanish rule.

### 18th century: Reforms and development
## Political history

As noted, the area had been designated a governorship (gobernación) during the initial exploration and settlement of the area, but because the local Amerindian peoples demonstrated fierce resistance, a more autonomous, military-based governmental authority was needed. Thus, the governor was given command of the local military and the title of captain general. This arrangement was seen in many places of the Spanish Empire.
The greatest setback the Spanish settlements suffered was the Disaster of Curalaba in 1598, which nearly wiped them out. All cities south of the Biobío River with the exception of Castro were destroyed. The river became La Frontera the de facto border between Spanish and Native areas for the next century. (See Arauco War.)
Chile lost an important part of its territory with the Bourbon reforms of Charles III, the territories of the city of Mendoza and San Juan from the province of Cuyo were transferred to the domain of the newly created Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776. Chile gained two intendancies, Santiago and Concepción in 1786 and became a Bourbon-style Captaincy General in 1789.

## Society
### Societal groups

The Chilean colonial society was based on a caste system. The Criollos (American born Spaniards) enjoyed privileges like the ownership of encomiendas (Indian labor jurisdictions) and were allowed limited access to government and administrative positions such as corregidor or alférez. Mestizos made up initially a small group, but with time grew to become a majority in Chilean society becoming more numerous than native indigenous peoples. Mestizos were not a homogeneous group and were judged more by appearance and education than by actual ancestry. Native peoples experienced the most discrimination among societal groups in colonial Chile; many of them were used as cheap labor in encomienda, causing their numbers to decrease over time due to disease. Pehuenches, Huilliches and Mapuches living south of La Frontera were not part of the colonial society since they were outside the de facto borders of Chile. Black slaves made up a minority of the population in colonial Chile and had a special status due to their high cost of import and maintenance. Black slaves were often used as housekeepers and other posts of confidence. Peninsulares, Spaniards born in Spain, were a rather small group in late colonial times, some of them came as government officials and some other as merchants. Their role in high government positions in Chile led to resentment among local criollos. Mixing of different groups was not uncommon although marriage between members of the different groups was rare.
During late colonial times new migration pulses took off leading to large numbers of Basque people settling in Chile mingling with landowning criollos, forming a new upper class. Scholar Louis Thayer Ojeda estimates that during the 17th and 18th centuries fully 45% of all immigrants in Chile were Basques.

### Sex and marriage

Native indigenous peoples in colonial society appeared, to the average Catholic Spaniard, to be somewhat liberal in their approach to sexual relationships.
16th century Spaniards are known to have been pessimistic about marriage. Many of the initial conquistadores left their own families behind in Spain and started new relationships in Chile. Examples of this is Pedro de Valdivia who held Inés de Suárez as a common law wife while in Chile. Adultery was explicitly forbidden for Catholics and the Council of Trent (1545–1563) made the climate prone for accusations of adultery. Over the course of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries marital fidelity increased in Chile.
The main indigenous group in the Aconcagua Valley was the Picunche people, which was the main etnicity to be mixed with the Spaniards are the territory controlled by the Monarchy was mainly concentrated those lands.

## Chilean Antarctica in the Hispanic Monarchy times

For many years, cartographers and European explorers speculated about the existence of the Terra Australis Incognita, a vast territory located in the south of the Strait of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego and reached the South Pole.
The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed on June 7 of 1494, set the areas of influence of Spain and Portugal, west and east, respectively, of a line running from pole to pole that was never demarcated (at 46° 37 'W in the Spanish classical interpretation, and further west, according to the Portuguese interpretation), so the Antarctic areas claimed by Chile today, while still unknown at that time, fell within the control of Spain. The treaty, backed by the papal bull Ea quae pro bono pacis in 1506 was made mandatory for all Catholic countries, was not recognized by European non-Catholic states and even by some that were, like France. For Britain, Dutch, Russia and other countries, the Antarctic areas were considered res nullius, a no man's land not subject to the occupation of any nation.
In 1534, The Emperor Charles V divided in three governorates the South American territory :
* New Castile or Peru to Francisco Pizarro,
* New Toledo or Chile to Diego de Almagro and
* New León or Magellanic Lands for Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor [es], which was subsequently extended to the Straits of Magellan.
In 1539, a new governorate was formed south of New León called Terra Australis to Pedro Sanchez de la Hoz. In 1554, the conqueror Pedro de Valdivia, who led the Governorate of Chile, he talked to the Council of the Indies to give the rights of New León and the Terra Australis to Jeronimo de Alderete, which, after the death of Valdivia the following year, became governor of Chile and annexed the Chilean colonial territory.
Proof of this are numerous historical documents, among which include a Royal Decree of 1554:
   Because it was personally consulted, we will grant, to the Captain Jeronimo de Alderete the land across the Magellan Strait
Later, in 1558, the Royal Decree of Brussels it prompted the Chilean colonial government to take ownership in our name from the lands and provinces that fall in the demarcation of the Spanish crown in Referring to the land across the Strait, because at that time it was thought that Tierra del Fuego was an integral part of the Terra Australis.
One of the most important works of Spanish literature, the epic poem La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla (1569), is also considered by Chile as favorable to their argument, as you can read in the seventh stanza of his Canto I:
   Is Chile North South very long, new sea coast of the south called; will from East to West of wide one hundred miles, so wider taken, under the Antarctic Pole height twenty-seven degrees, prolonged until the sea Ocean and Chilean mix their waters within narrow.
In the fourth stanza of his Canto III:
   This was the one who found the sections Indians of Antarctic regions.
There are also stories and maps, both Chilean and Europeans, indicating the membership of the Terra Australis Antarctica as part of the Captaincy General of Chile.
The Spanish navigator Gabriel de Castilla sailed from Valparaiso in March 1603 in command of three ships in an expedition entrusted by his brother cousin viceroy of Peru, Luis de Velasco y Castilla, to repress the incursions of Dutch privateers in the Southern Seas, reaching 64 degrees south latitude. There have not founded in the Spanish archives documents confirming the reached latitude and sighted land; however, the story of the Dutch sailor Laurenz Claesz (is a testimony dateless, but probably after 1607), documents the latitude and time. Claesz said:
   Sailed under the Admiral don Gabriel of Castile with three ships along the coasts of Chile towards Valparaiso, and from there to the strait. In March of 1603 he reached 64 degrees and they had a lot of snow there. In the following April they returned back to the coast of Chile
Another Dutch document, published in Amsterdam in three languages in 1622, says that at 64°S there are "very high and mountainous, snow cover, like the country of Norway, all white, land It seemed to extend to the Solomon Islands" This confirms a previous sighting of the lands would be the South Shetland Islands.
Other historians attribute the first sighting of Antarctic land to the Dutch marine Dirk Gerritsz, which would have found the islands now known as South Shetland. According to his account, his ship was diverted from course by a storm after transposing the Strait of Magellan, in the journey of a Dutch expedition to the East Indies in 1599. There are doubts about the veracity of Gerritsz.
At this time was already known the existence of a white continent in south of the Drake Passage, separated from the Tierra del Fuego. In 1772, the British James Cook circumnavigated the waters of the Southern Ocean. which was granted to Pedro Sancho de la Hoz

## Economy

The Spanish conquest of Chile was carried out by private enterprises rather than directly by the Spanish Crown. The settlers established cities, granting land and indigenous labor to Spaniards for economic activities.
Gold extraction and agriculture were key economic activities, though the exploitation of indigenous labor led to conflicts with Jesuits, Spanish officials, and Mapuche resistance. The Spanish city network collapsed after the battle of Curalaba (1598), leading to an economic shift towards hacienda-based agriculture and livestock farming.
In the 17th century, Chilean exports to Viceroyalty of Peru included suet, charqui, and leather, making the period known as the "century of suet." Additionally, wood from Chiloé Archipelago and Valdivia supplied Peruvian markets.
By the 18th century, Chile had become a key wheat supplier to Peru, especially after the 1687 earthquake and stem rust epidemic in Peru devastated local production. Chilean latifundia focused on international exports rather than local markets. The century also saw a mining revival, with gold and silver production increasing significantly.
Shipbuilding peaked in Valdivia, Concepción, and Chiloé, constructing vessels including frigates for Spanish trade. Meanwhile, smuggling became widespread, weakening Spain's trade monopoly.
The Chilean Independence War (1810–1818) disrupted trade and devastated the countryside. The post-war economy struggled with heavy debt, and a 1822 loan from London burdened the new Chilean state for decades. Despite these challenges, new trade relations with the United States, France, and the United Kingdom emerged.