# Grigory Zass

vteRussian colonial campaigns :
pre-18th century
Siberia (1580–late 17th century)
Manchuria (1652–1689)
18th-20th century
Khivan campaign of 1717
Caucasus/northern Persia (1722–1723)
Caucasus (1800–1864)
Circassia
North Caucasus
Russian colonization of North America
Battle of Sitka
Turkestan (1839–1895)
Khivan campaign of 1839
Bukhara
Khivan campaign of 1873
China/Manchuria (1899–1901)
Manchuria and Korea (1904–05)
Persia (1908–11) :
Grigory Khristoforovich von Zass (Russian: Григорий Христофорович фон Засс; German: Georg Otto Ewald Freiherr von Saß; 1797–1883) was an Imperial Russian general who commanded Russian cavalry troops in the Napoleonic Wars and Russo-Circassian War, initially gaining prominence for his actions against the Circassians, whom he reportedly saw as a "lowly race". He was the founder of the city of Armavir, Russia.
In 2003, the Russian Federation erected his statue on former Circassian territories, infuriating Circassians and Circassian nationalist establishments worldwide.

## Biography
### Early life

Zass (Georg Otto Ewald von Sass or Saß in German) was born into a Baltic German noble family. His ancestors were nobles from Westphalia who in the 15th century moved to the Baltic region, fought under the banner of the Order of the Sword, and in 1710, was among the 52 so-called chivalric families, including the Ungern-Sternbergs and Wrangel family, which took a solemn oath of allegiance to the Russian sovereign, Peter the Great. In 1813 at the age of fifteen, he entered military service as a cadet in the Grodno Hussar Regiment. He rose through the ranks of the Russian army and first saw action in the 1813 Battle of Leipzig. He was transferred to the Novgorod division in 1820.

### Military career
#### Napoleonic Wars

Zass took part in the War of the Sixth Coalition with the Russian army in 1813–1814, in German campaign of 1813 after swearing allegiance to the Tsar, being of Germanic-Baltic descent. He fought at Dresden, Kulm and Leipzig, was awarded the insignia of the Military Order and promoted to cornet, then participated in the battles in the 1814 campaign in north-east France at Brienne, Bar-sur-Aube, Arcis-sur-Aube, Metz, and Fère-Champenoise, and ended the fighting under the walls of Paris. In 1815 he was part of the Russian troops during the second campaign in France in the Hundred Days and took part in the famous parade near Vertus. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, he served in the Pskov Cuirassier Regiment.

#### Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)

In 1820 he transferred to the Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment, which fought in the Caucasus. He took part in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829.

#### Russo-Circassian War

In 1830 Zass received command of the Mozdok Cossack Regiment as a result of his success in the Russo-Turkish War. With this regiment he undertook several successful expeditions against the Caucasian natives. In a 1832 battle against the Chechens, he was severely wounded while attempting to burn a village and consequentially promoted to colonel.
In 1833, he was appointed commander of the Batalpashinsky section of the Kuban Line. Having studied the military traditions of Caucasian natives and having mastered the tactics of mountain warfare, he tried to seize the initiative and began to carry out regular preventive measures, based on data received from numerous scouts. Active defense was complemented by cruel punitive expeditions, which ended, as a rule, with the extermination of villages. He was appointed as chief commander and given full authority.
In August, he led the first expedition into Circassian territory, destroying as many villages and towns as possible. This was followed by a series of other expeditions. He attacked the Besleney region between November and December, destroying most villages, including the village of the double agent Aytech Qanoqo.
Zass spent a significant amount of money on espionage. During attacks on Circassian land, he never forgot about reconnaissance tasks: his men thoroughly investigated all wooden beams that could serve as enemy shelter, demolished farms, and killed farmers so the enemy would not be able to get food. He made a list of all the Circassians he personally killed. His fearlessness and incredible awareness of the affairs of the Caucasians brought him an otherworldly status among the Circassians, who called Zass "Shaytan" (Satan). Circassian mothers reportedly frightened their children with the name of Zass.
In 1834, Zass sent a report to Georg Andreas von Rosen, a general in the Russian army, detailing his campaign into Circassia. He talks about how he killed three Circassian civilians:
   I captured three Circassians from carriages that were on their way to fetch grass, other than the thirteen we already had, who did not wish to surrender to us voluntarily, so I ordered to kill them.
He then talks about how he destroyed a neighborhood:
   The savages panicked and started fleeing from their homes, leaving their weapons behind attempting to escape to the forest but most of them were killed by the Cossacks ... with the soldiers lined up ready to fight, the cleansing continued with artillery shells, and I sent there two infantry brigades, but they could only capture 11 more people, and since the fire was in flames in many places, the rest were either killed or burned after attempting to escape by hiding on the roofs of their homes or by the manure. So like this, we destroyed and destructed the neighborhood.
Zass' main strategy was to intercept and retain the initiative, terrorize the Circassians, and destroy Circassian settlements. After a victory, he would usually burn several villages and seize cattle and horses to show off, acts which he proudly admitted. He paid close attention to the enemy's morale. In his reports, he frequently boasted about the destruction of villages and glorified the mass murder of civilians. The military successes of the regiments led by him were highly appreciated by the high command. He received as a reward several prestigious orders and a golden weapon with the inscription "For Bravery".
He continued to exterminate the Circassian population between 1834 and 1835, particularly in the Abdzakh, Besleney, Shapsug, and Kabardian regions. In 1835, he was promoted. The entire Kuban line was entrusted to his command, in 1836 he was promoted to major general, and in 1840 – to lieutenant general and appointed chief of the right flank of the Caucasian line. On his initiative, new fortifications began to be laid (one of them is called "Zassovsky") and new Orthodox Slavic villages were arranged, which was the beginning of the creation of the Labinskaya line.
Zass loved spreading rumors about himself by exploiting Circassian tribal superstitions. Using various tricks and cutting-edge technology, he was able to convince and deceive the Circassians into thinking that he had various magical abilities, including being bulletproof and able to turn gunpowder into gold. He was known as a magical man who could do anything he wanted to do. As a result, when he attacked, the Circassians believed they had no chance and suffered a significant loss of morale; knowing Zass's cruel methods, they mostly attempted to save their lives rather than fighting.
On 18 August, the Russian army burned the residency of Hajji Tlam, a Circassian elder from the Abdzakh region, and killed his family. As revenge, Circassian commander Jembulat Boletoqo made plans for a new campaign. General Zass sent Circassian commander Jembulat Boletoqo word in October 1836 that he wanted to make peace. Boletoqo considered the offer and decided to go.
Boletoqo visited Zass at his residence. For his initial visit, Zass was not present. Zass wrote him a letter and instructed him to come on a specific date when he would undoubtedly be in his residency. At the said date, Boletoqo was killed on non-warzone territory while on his way to the Prochnyi Okop fortress. The murderer was a Russian sniper employed by Zass, who was hiding in the forest on the Russian bank of the Kuban River, at the confluence with the Urup River. After this, in 1836, Zass was promoted again.
In 1838, Zass spread false rumors about his serious illness, then staged his own death, weakening the Circassians' vigilance. On the same night, when the Circassians were celebrating their oppressor's death, the suddenly "resurrected" Zass launched a raid that destroyed two villages.
Between 1840 and 1841, he burned his last villages and built Russian villages on top of them. The punitive strategy of Zass and other Caucasian generals alienated the population and caused discontent in St. Petersburg. In 1842, Zass was removed from service in the Caucasus and because of the quarrel in 1842 with superiors, including Pavel Grabbe, he was forced to leave the Caucasus forever, and ultimately to resign in 1848.

#### Hungarian Revolution of 1848

Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, in March 1849, recruited a Russian army, composed of about 8,000 soldiers, to assist Franz Joseph against the unrest in Hungary. In 1849 Zass returned to service and took part in the campaign in Hungary, commanding the Vanguard of the 3rd Corps. Russia invaded Transylvania on 8 April 1849. But as they crossed the Southern Carpathian mountain passes (along the border of Transylvania and Wallachia), they were met by a large Hungarian revolutionary army led by Józef Bem, a Polish-born General. Zass participated in the battles of Weitzen and Debrecen.
Zass then again left the service in 1864.

#### Reservist in Caucasian Army

In recognition of his previous services, Emperor Alexander II ordered Zass to be enlisted in the service nominally in the Caucasian Army, and in 1877 he was promoted to the rank of general of cavalry.

### Retirement

Emperor Alexander II, wishing to honor the military exploits of Zass, called him back into service and promoted him to general of cavalry, commanding him to be listed in the Caucasian Army with the right to live wherever he wanted. Zass died at the age of 86 in Šķēde Manor, Courland Governorate, Russian Empire (now Saldus Municipality, Latvia).

## Racist views

Zass considered Circassians to be subhumans inferior to the "European Race", particularly Germans and Russians. The only way to deal with the Circassians, in his opinion, was to scare them away "just like wild animals". He kept a box under his bed with his collection of severed Circassian body parts.
Zass advocated ruthless military methods predicated on this notion, including burning people alive, cutting off heads for enjoyment, burning populated villages to the ground, spreading epidemics on purpose, and mass rape of children.

## War crimes and genocidal actions
### Methods of massacre of Circassians

Colonel Grigory Zass was a key figure in the Circassian genocide through ethnic cleansing, which included methods such as burning entire Circassian villages, and deliberately causing epidemics. It is estimated that 70% of the East Circassian population died in the process.
Zass believed that there was no need to try to negotiate with the Circassians. His reports regularly say the following – "the village was exterminated to the ground", "those who resisted together with the village were committed to fire and sword", "the inhabitants of the village perished."
Zass sent severed Circassian heads to his friends in Berlin who were professors and used them to study anatomy. The Decembrist Nikolai Ivanovich Lorer said that Zass cleaned and boiled the flesh off the heads after storing them under his bed in his tent. He also had Circassian heads outside of his tent impaled on lances on a hill. Circassian men's corpses were decapitated by Russian-Cossack women on the battlefield after the battles were over for the heads to be sent to Zass for collection.
Zass erected Circassian heads on poles outside of his tent and witnesses report seeing wind blow their beards. Russian soldiers and Cossacks were paid for sending Circassian heads to Zass. Besides cutting Circassian heads off and collecting them, Zass employed a deliberate strategy of annihilating Circassian en masse, burning entire Circassian villages with the people in them and encouraging the rape of Circassian women and children. Zass' forces referred to all Circassian elderly, children, women and men as "bandits", "plunderers" or "thieves" and the Russian empire's forces were commanded by officers who commanded political dissidents and criminals.
Zass worked with another German officer in the Russian army named Georg Andreas von Rosen during the genocide against the Circassians. Zass wrote letters to Rosen proudly admitting he ordered Cossacks to slaughter Circassian civilians.

### Dismembering corpses

In addition, it was recorded that Zass dismembered Circassian corpses, hid them as ornaments and sent them abroad to be used as test subjects. Zass especially sent severed Circassian heads to professors in Berlin, who used them to study anatomy.

### A Circassian Lament

An oral Circassian tradition describes the cultural memory of Zass as follows:
   Zass with his thick mustache, Is hanging the skulls of our men on sticks. Our children in the wombs of mothers, He stabs them out with a sword. Children's bodies taken from the mother's womb, They play with them on sticks. The atrocities committed by the enemy, Our new born generations should not forget.

### Hobby of collecting heads and body parts

Zass is said to have washed and cooked Circassian heads' flesh before putting them under his bed in his tent. He also had Circassian heads impaled on lances on a hill near his tent. After the battle, Circassian corpses were beheaded and the heads were sent to Zass for collection. Zass erected Circassian heads on poles outside of his tent and witnesses saw the wind blowing the beards of the heads. In addition, Russian soldiers and Cossacks were paid for sending Circassian heads to General Zass. He kept his personal collection of decapitated Circassian heads and body parts in a box under his bed.
Besides cutting Circassian heads off and collecting them, Zass used a premeditated policy of annihilating Circassians en masse, burning entire Circassian towns with their inhabitants and inciting the abuse of Circassian women and children.

## Legacy
### Controversy

Zass is depicted as the Devil or Satan in Circassian folklore.
In 2003, a monument to General Zass, as the founder of the city, was unveiled in the city of Armavir, Krasnodar Territory. The installation of the monument caused a sharply negative reaction of the Circassian society.

### Establishments founded by him

On April 21, 1839, Zass founded the city of Armavir.
By 1843, he founded the villages of Urupskaya, Voznesenskaya, Chemlykskaya and Labinskaya. Zass's plans, however, extended even further. He developed a plan to strengthen the left bank of the Belaya River, to create powerful strongholds for the Russian army.
On August 26, 1904, the 1st Labinsky Regiment of the Kuban Cossack Army began to bear his name.

## Sources

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* ↑ "ZASS Grigory Khristoforovich fon (2797–1883), baron, general ot kavalerii, geroy Kavkazskoy voyny" ЗАСС Григорий Христофорович фон (1797–1883), барон, генерал от кавалерии, герой Кавказской войны. Encyclopedia of Germans of Russia. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
* ↑ "ZASS Grigory Khristoforovich fon (2797–1883), baron, general ot kavalerii, geroy Kavkazskoy voyny" ЗАСС Григорий Христофорович фон (1797–1883), барон, генерал от кавалерии, герой Кавказской войны. Encyclopedia of Germans of Russia. Retrieved 20 January 2022. He came from an ancient Westphalian baronial family. His ancestors in the fifteenth century moved to the Baltic States.
* ↑ "Zass Grigory Khristoforovich" Засс Григорий Христофорович. Caucasian Knot. 20 May 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2022. Русский генерал, участник Кавказской войны. Известен тем, что проводил крайне жестокую политику устрашения черкесов. [Russian general, participant in the Caucasian War. He is known for pursuing an extremely cruel policy of intimidating the Circassians.]
* ↑ "ZASS Grigory Khristoforovich fon (1797–1883), baron, general ot kavalerii, geroy Kavkazskoy voyny" ЗАСС Григорий Христофорович фон (1797–1883), барон, генерал от кавалерии, герой Кавказской войны. Encyclopedia of Germans of Russia. Retrieved 20 January 2022. Emperor Alexander II ordered Sass to be enlisted
* ↑ "Zass Grigory Khristoforovich" Засс Григорий Христофорович. Caucasian Knot. 20 May 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2022. 1864, G. H. von Sass was again called up for service by Alexander II
* 1 2 3 4 Щербина Ф. А. История Армавира и черкесо-горцев. — Екатеринодар: Электро-тип. т-во «Печатник», 1916.
* 1 2 3 4 5 Dönmez, Yılmaz (31 May 2018). "General Zass'ın Kızının Adigeler Tarafından Kaçırılışı". ÇERKES-FED (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
* 1 2 3 4 "Jembulat Bolotoko: The Prince of Princes (Part One)". Jamestown. Archived from the original on 25 October 2020. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
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* 1 2 3 4 "ZASS Grigory Khristoforovich fon (1797–1883), baron, general ot kavalerii, geroy Kavkazskoy voyny" ЗАСС Григорий Христофорович фон (1797–1883), барон, генерал от кавалерии, герой Кавказской войны. enc.rusdeutsch.ru. Archived from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
* 1 2 Richmond, Walter (9 April 2013). The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-6069-4.
* 1 2 3 4 "Velyaminov, Zass ve insan kafası biriktirme hobisi". Jıneps Gazetesi (in Turkish). 2 September 2013. Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
* 1 2 Duvar, Gazete (14 September 2020). "Kafkasya'nın istenmeyen Rus anıtları: Kolonyal geçmişi hatırlatıyorlar". Gazeteduvar (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
* 1 2 3 Rajović, G. & Ezhevski, D. O. & Vazerova, A. G. & Trailovic, M.. (2018). "The Tactics and Strategy of General G.Kh. Zass in the Caucasus". Bylye Gody. 50. 1492–1498. doi:10.13187/bg.2018.4.1492.
* ↑ PT (2020). "Çerkeslerden Rusya'ya: Kolonyalist politikalarınız nefret ekiyor" [Circassians to Russia: Your colonialist policies sow hatred]. Bianet (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
* ↑ Dzutsati, Valery (8 November 2016). "New Monuments of Russian Heroes of Russian-Circassian War Anger Circassians". Eurasia Daily Monitor. The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
* ↑ «Русский биографический словарь А.А. Половцова. Том 7»
* 1 2 Colonel Grigory Zass. Letter to Baron Rosen. 25 February 1834. P. Boutkov, Materials for the New History of the Caucasus – Part I
* ↑ "Des Teufels Baron: Zass und die Tscherkessen". Daniel Zander (in German). Retrieved 22 October 2024.
* ↑ В. Немировича-Данченко «Рыцари гор» (Москва, 1911)
* ↑ "Jembulat Bolotoko: Prensleri̇n Prensi̇ (Pşixem 'Ari̇pş*)". cherkessia.net. 2013. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
* 1 2 Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich. "Neue Rheinsche Zeitung [From the Theatre of War]". Collected Works (in German). Vol. 9. 8 April 1849 pages 242, 262. Archived from the original on 9 February 2005.
* ↑ "ЗАСС Григорий Христофорович фон (1797–1883), барон, генерал от кавалерии, герой Кавказской войны". Encyclopedia of Germans of Russia. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
* ↑ Eugene Horváth, "Russia and the Hungarian Revolution (1848–9)". Slavonic and East European Review 12.36 (1934): 628–645. online
* ↑ "ЗАСС Григорий Христофорович фон (1797–1883), барон, генерал от кавалерии, герой Кавказской войны". Encyclopedia of Germans of Russia. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
* ↑ Ibid., p. 420.
* ↑ "'Benim Adım 1864'". Sivil Sayfalar (in Turkish). 21 May 2020. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
* 1 2 "Son Haber | 21 Mayıs 1864 Çerkes Soykırımı". Son Haber (in Turkish). 20 May 2020. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
* ↑ Bashqawi, Adel (2017). Circassia: Born to Be Free. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1543447651.
* ↑ "THE REPORTS AND THE TESTIMONIES ABOUT RUSSIAN – CIRCASSIAN WAR AND THE CIRCASSIAN GENOCIDE". Circassian World. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0813560694.
* ↑ Bullough, Oliver (2010). Let Our Fame Be Great: Journeys Among the Defiant People of the Caucasus. Basic Books. p. 60. ISBN 978-0465022571.
* ↑ Treisman, Daniel (2011). The Return: Russia's Journey from Gorbachev to Medvedev (illustrated, reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 455. ISBN 978-1416560722.
* ↑ Mamedov, Mikail. “‘Going Native’ in the Caucasus: Problems of Russian Identity, 1801–64.” The Russian Review, vol. 67, no. 2, 2008, pp. 275–295. JSTOR, accessed 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Tlis, Fatima (1 August 2008). "Moscow's Favoritism Towards Cossacks Mocks Circassian History". North Caucasus Weekly. 9 (30).
* ↑ Zhemukhov, Sufian (9 November 2011). "Jembulat Bolotoko: The Prince of Princes (Part Two)". Eurasia Daily Monitor. 8 (207).
* ↑ Golovin, Ivan (1954). The Caucasus (PDF). Trubner, & Co. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Sykes, Heather (2016). The Sexual and Gender Politics of Sport Mega-Events: Roving Colonialism. Routledge Critical Studies in Sport. Taylor & Francis. p. 124. ISBN 978-1317690016.
* ↑ Khodarkovsky, Michael (2011). Bitter Choices: Loyalty and Betrayal in the Russian Conquest of the North Caucasus. Cornell University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-0801462900.
* ↑ Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0813560694.
* ↑ Bashqawi, Adel (2017). Circassia: Born to Be Free. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1543447651.
* ↑ Bashqawi, Adel (2019). The Circassian Miracle: the Nation Neither Tsars, nor Commissars, nor Russia Could Stop. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1796076851.
* ↑ Kingston, William Henry Giles (2020). The Circassian Chief: A Romance of Russia. Library of Alexandria. ISBN 978-1465593184.
* ↑ Kingston, William Henry G. (1854). The Circassian chief, Volume 101. p. 192.
* ↑ Family Herald, Volume 17. The definitive visual guide. George Biggs. 1859. p. 287.
* ↑ Burnaby, Fred (1877). On Horseback Through Asia Minor, Volume 2 (2 ed.). S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington. p. 88.
* ↑ Capobianco, Michael (13 October 2012). "Blood on the Shore: The Circassian Genocide". Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Richmond 2013, back cover.
* ↑ Bashqawi, Adel (2017). Circassia: Born to Be Free. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1543447651. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
* ↑ "The Reports and the Testimonies About Russian–Circassian War and the Circassian Genocide". Circassian World. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0813560694. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
* ↑ Bullough, Oliver (2010). Let Our Fame Be Great: Journeys Among the Defiant People of the Caucasus. Basic Books. p. 60. ISBN 978-0465022571. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
* ↑ Treisman, Daniel (2011). The Return: Russia's Journey from Gorbachev to Medvedev (illustrated, reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 455. ISBN 978-1416560722. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
* ↑ "Zass Grigory Khristoforovich" Засс Григорий Христофорович. Кавказский Узел. 20 May 2014. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
* ↑ Mamedov, Mikail. "'Going Native' in the Caucasus: Problems of Russian Identity, 1801–64". The Russian Review, vol. 67, no. 2, 2008, pp. 275–295. JSTOR 20620748 Mamedov, Mikail (2008). ""Going Native" in the Caucasus: Problems of Russian Identity, 1801-64". The Russian Review. 67 (2): 275–295. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9434.2008.00484.x. JSTOR 20620748. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). Accessed 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Tlis, Fatima (1 August 2008). "Moscow's Favoritism Towards Cossacks Mocks Circassian History". North Caucasus Weekly. 9 (30). Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Zhemukhov, Sufian (9 November 2011). "Jembulat Bolotoko: The Prince of Princes (Part Two)". Eurasia Daily Monitor. 8 (207). Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Golovin, Ivan (1954). The Caucasus (PDF). Trubner, & Co. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
* ↑ Sykes, Heather (2016). The Sexual and Gender Politics of Sport Mega-Events: Roving Colonialism. Routledge Critical Studies in Sport. Taylor & Francis. p. 124. ISBN 978-1317690016. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
* ↑ Khodarkovsky, Michael (2011). Bitter Choices: Loyalty and Betrayal in the Russian Conquest of the North Caucasus. Cornell University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-0801462900. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.