# Kainji languages

The Kainji languages are a group of about 60 related languages spoken in west-central Nigeria. They form part of the Central Nigerian (Platoid) branch of Benue–Congo.

## Demographics

Four of the most widely spoken Kainji languages are Tsuvadi (150,000), Cishingini and Tsishingini (100,000 each)—all from the Kambari branch; and Clela (C'lela, Lela) (100,000), of the Northwest Kainji branch. In total, there were about one million speakers of Kainji languages (1990s estimate) in Nigeria.

## History

Proto-Kainji is estimated by Blench (2012) to be 3,000 to 4,000 years old. Its broken distribution today is likely due to the historical northward expansion of the Nupoid languages.

## Morphology

Proto-Kainji nominal prefixes:
* *mV- for liquids and other mass nouns
* *u- for person, *ba- for people
* *kV- for diminutive and perhaps also augmentative; also found in some Plateau languages

## Classification

The most divergent of the Kainji languages are Reshe, Laru and Lopa, which may form a branch together. Subclassification of the other branches is not yet clear. A bipartite division between East Kainji and West Kainji is no longer maintained, with West Kainji now being paraphyletic.

### Blench (2018)

Most recent Kainji classification by Blench (2018:64):
* Kainji
** Lake
*** Reshe
*** Upper Niger
**** Rop
**** Shen, Shuba
** Central
*** Northwest Kainji
*** Kambari, Cicipu
*** East Kainji
*** Kamuku, Shiroro, Basa

### Blench (2012)

Blench's (2012) classification is:
* Kainji
** Lakes: Reshe; Laru (Shen), Lopa (Rerang)
** Kainji proper (Central)
*** Northwest Kainji (Lela)
**** Kambari, Cicipu
**** Basa, East Kainji
**** Kamuku, Shiroro

### McGill (2012)

A revised classification of the Kainji languages by McGill (2012) splits Kainji into the Lake and Central branches.
* Kainji
** Lake
*** Reshe
*** Upper Niger
**** Sengwe/Laru
**** Oleran/Lopa: Rop, Cuba
** Central
*** Basa, Eastern
*** Northwest
**** Damakawa
**** C'lela
**** Hun-Saare/Duka; Wuri-Gwamhi-Mba, Ma'in/Fakai
*** Kambari
**** Cicipu
**** West: Gaushi/Auna, Kimba, Wunci/Agwara
**** East: Shingini/Salka, Va'di, Bangi
*** Nuclear
**** Shiroro
***** Bauchi: Mun-Wayam, Rubo-Supana
***** Gurmana
***** Rin/Pongu, Waga
***** Fungwa/Ura
**** Kamuku-Hunwarya/Ngwoi
***** Hunwarya/Ngwoi
***** Kamuku
****** Regi-Cinda-Kuki
****** Rogo-Shiyabe, Zubazuba-East Acipa
****** Shama

### Gerhardt (1983)

Classification of Plateau 1a (now West Kainji) and Plateau 1b (now East Kainji) languages by Gerhardt (1983), based on Maddieson (1972):
* Plateau 1a
** Laru-Lopa
** Reshe
** Kambari cluster
** Ngwoi, Kamuku cluster, Bassa-Kontagora, Ashaganna
** Bassa-Kaduna, Bassa-Kuta, Gurmana, Pongo, Baushi, Ura, Bassa-Kwomu
** Dakarkari, Duka, Pəku-Kəri-Wipsi cluster, Lyase
* Plateau 1b
** Kuda-Chamo, Butu-Ningi, Gyema, Taura, Lemoro-Sanga, Janji, Shani, Buji-Ibunu-Jere-Gus, Anaguta
** Kuzamaini, Kurama, Rumaya, Ruruma, Binawa, Kono, Surubu
** Kaivi, Kiballo, Kitimi, Kinuku, Dungi, Gure-Kahugu
** Amo

## Names and locations

Below is a comprehensive list of Kainji language names, populations, and locations from Blench (2019).
Note: West Kainji is geographical rather than genealogical.
Distributions of Kainji groups :
| Group | Primary locations |

### West Kainji

| Language | Branch | Cluster | Dialects | Alternate spellings | Own name for language | Endonym(s) | Other names (location-based) | Other names for language | Exonym(s) | Speakers | Location(s) | Notes |
| Hɨpɨna | Baushi | | | Supana | Tihɨpɨna | Vihɨpɨna pl. Ahɨpɨna | | | | | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Supana town | |
| Mɨn | Baushi | | | | Tiimɨn | Vʷinyi Mɨn pl. Ayi Mɨn | Bauchi Guda, Kukoki (name of largest town) | | | | Niger State, Rafi LGA, 27 villages in 8 chiefships | |
| Ndәkә | Baushi | | Shena may be a dialect | Madaka | Tundәkә | Vundәkә pl. Andәka | | | | | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Madaka town | |
| Rubu | Baushi | | | | | | | | | | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Rubu town | |
| Wãyã | Baushi | | | Wayam | Tũwãyã | Vũwãyã pl. Ãwãyã | | | | | Niger State, Rafi and Shiroro LGAs, Wayam town | |
| Samburu | Baushi | | | | | | | | | | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Samburu town | no data |
| Gurmana | Eastern | | | | | | | | | estimated more than 3,000 (1989) | Niger State, Shiroro LGA. Gurmana town and nearby hamlets | |
| Cipu | Kambari | | Kumbashi, Tikula, Ticihun, Tirisino, Tidipo, Tizoriyo, Tiddodimo | | Cicipu | Tocipu | Acipa, Achipa, Achipawa, Atsipawa | Tәcәp Tochipo Tә–Sәgәmuk | Bucepo sg., Ucɛpo pl. Bu–Sәgәmuk sg. | 3,600 (1949 G&C) | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Mariga and Rafi LGA, Kaduna State Birnin Gwari LGA | |
| Damakawa (extinct) | Kambari | | | Damakawa | | | | | Tidama’un (Cicipu name) | 500-1000 ethnic population, but language now has only a few rememberers | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA, villages of Inguwar Kilo and Marandu | The dubious reliability of some of the data and the possibility of Cipu loans makes the classification of Damakawa slightly uncertain. |
| Kambari I cluster | Kambari | Kambari I | | Kamberi | | | | | | with Kambari II: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Niger State, Magama and Mariga LGAs; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Niger State, Borgu LGA | |
| Agaɗi | Kambari | Kambari I | | | Tsɨgaɗi | | Kakihum | | | | Niger State, Mariga LGA | |
| Avaɗi | Kambari | Kambari I | | Abadi, Evadi | Tsɨvaɗi | | Ibeto | | | | Niger State, Magama LGA | |
| Baangi | Kambari | Kambari I | | Baangi | ciBaangi | sg. vuBaangi, pl. aBaangi | | Bangawa (Hausa) | | estimate more than 5,000 (1989) | Niger State, Kontagora LGA, Ukata town and nearby villages; probably also into adjacent Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | |
| Tsishingini | Kambari | Kambari I | | | Cishingini, Tsishingini | Mashingini pl. Ashingini | Salka | | | | Niger State, Magama LGA | |
| Yumu | Kambari | Kambari I | | | Yumu, Osisi | | | | | | Niger State, Borgu LGA, at Yumu and Osisi | |
| Kambari II cluster | Kambari | Kambari II | | Kamberi | | | | | | with Kambari I: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Niger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Kwara State, Borgu LGA | |
| Agaushi | Kambari | Kambari II | | | Cishingini | | Auna | | | | Niger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | |
| Akimba | Kambari | Kambari II | | | Tsɨkimba | Akimba | Auna, Wara | | | | Niger State, Rijau, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | |
| Cishingini, Nwanci | Kambari | Kambari II | | Cishingini, Ngwәci | Cishingini, Tsɨwәnci | Mawunci sg. Ŋwәnci pl. | Agwara | Agara’iwa | | | Niger State, Borgu, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | |
| Zubazuba | Kamuku | | | | Gamazuba | | | | | | Igwama, Mariga LGA, Niger State | |
| Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki cluster | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | | | | | | | Kamuku | | Niger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs | |
| Cinda | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Oxford Primary Maths 1 (1988?) | Jinda, Majinda | Tucindә | sg. Bucindә pl. Cindә | | | | | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |
| Regi | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | | | Turegi | sg. Buregi pl. Regi | | | | | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |
| Kuki | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Azana, Akubyar | Tiyar [town name not a language] | TuKuki | BuKuki pl. Kuki | Kamuku | | | | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |
| Kwacika (extinct) | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | | | Tukwacika | sg. Bukwacika pl. Kwacika | | | | There was only one elderly speaker in the 1980s; hence, it is almost certainly extinct | Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |
| Kwagere | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | | | | | | | | | Niger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs | |
| Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi cluster | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | | | | | | | | | | |
| Basa-Gurara | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | | | | | Basa-Kwali | | | | Federal Capital Territory, Yaba and Kwali LGAs, along the Gurara river | |
| Basa-Benue | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | | Basa | RuBasa | TuBasa | | Abacha, Abatsa | Basa-Komo, Basa-Kwomu (not recommended) | 30,000 (1944-50 HDG); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Kogi State, Bassa, and Ankpa LGAs, Nasarawa State, Nasarawa LGA | |
| Basa-Makurdi | Kamuku–Basa | | | | | | | | | | Benue State, Makurdi LGA, several villages on the north bank of the Benue, northwest of Makurdi | no data |
| Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora cluster (extinct?) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | | | | | | | | | | |
| Basa-Gumna (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | | | | | | Gwadara-Basa, Basa Kuta, Basa-Kaduna | | Only 2 known semi-speakers in 1987. The population known as Basawa speaks only Hausa. Probably now extinct | Niger State, Chanchaga LGA | |
| Basa-Kontagora (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | | | | | | | | Fewer than 10 speakers in 1987. Probably now extinct | Niger State, Mariga LGA, N.E. of Kontagora | |
| Basa-Gurmana | Kamuku–Basa | | | | Kɔrɔmba | | | | | more than 2,000 speakers (1987) | Niger State, border of Rafi and Chanchaga LGAs, Kafin Gurmana | |
| Rogo | Kamuku–Basa | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | | | TɔRɔgɔ | BɔRɔgɔ sg. Rɔgɔ pl. | | | Ucanja Kamuku | | Niger State, Rafi and Kusheriki LGAs, around Ucanja town, 30 km northwest of Kagara. | |
| Fungwa | Kamuku–Basa | | | | Tufungwa | Afungwa | Ura, Ula | | | 900 (1949 H.D. Gunn) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, at Gulbe, Gabi Tuƙurbe, Urenciki, Ringa and Utana | |
| Hùngwә̀ryə̀ | Kamuku–Basa | | Dialects: Bitbit (Kwabitu), Lәklәk (Karaku), Jinjin (Makangara), Wũswũs (Karaiya), Tәmbәrjә (Tambere) | | Cәhungwә̀ryə̀, Tʷə̀hungwә̀ryə̀ [ʨə̀hungwә̀ryə̀] | Bùhùngwə̀ryə̀ sg., ə̀hùngwə̀ryə̀ pl. | | | Ngwoi, Ngwe, Ungwe, Ingwe, Nkwoi, Ngwai, Ungwai, Hungworo | 1000 (1949 HDG), 5000 (2007 est.) | Niger State, Rafi, Kusheriki LGA, around Kagara and Maikujeri towns | |
| Shama–Sambuga cluster | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | | | Tushama | sg. Bushama, pl. Ushama | | | Kamuku | | Niger State, Rafi LGA | |
| Shama | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | | | Tushama | Bushama sg. Ushama pl. | | | | | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Ushama [=Kawo] town. 15 km northwest of Kagara | |
| Sambuga (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | | | | | | | | Possibly extinct (2008) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Sambuga town. 10 km northwest of Kagara | |
| Shen | Lake | | | Laro, Laru | | | | | Laruwa | 1,000 (1992 est.) | Niger State, Borgu LGA | |
| Rop | Lake | | | Lupa, Lopa | Kirikjir | Djiri | | | Lopawa | 960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.) | Niger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the western shore. | |
| Tsupamini | Lake | | | Lopa | | | | Lopanci | Lopawa | 960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.). Global estimate with Rop | Niger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the west shore. | |
| Reshe | Lake | | Birәmi (South), Bәmәmәdu (Northwest), Bәpalame (Northeast). Harris (1930:321) claims a ‘secret dialect’ called Tsudalupe which = Bәmәmәdu. | Tsure Ja | Tsureshe | Bareshe | | Gunganci | Gungawa, Yaurawa | 15,000 (1931 G&C); 30,000 (1973 SIL) | Kebbi State, Yauri LGA; Niger State, Borgu LGA | |
| Hun–Saare | Northern | | Western (sSaare) (around Dukku), Eastern (tHun) (around Rijau), Tungan Bunu | Ethun | tHun, sSaare | Hunnɛ | Duka | Dukanci | | 19,700 (1949 Gunn and Conant); 30,000 (1980 UBS) | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Rijau LGA | |
| Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun cluster | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | | | | | The name ut-Main has been adopted by various members of this cluster as a cover term for these languages, but whether it will be widely adopted remains to be seen. | Fakanci, Fakkanci | | 12,300 (1949 G&C) | Kebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, west of Dabai | |
| Kag | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | | | tKag | sg. woo Kag, pl. Kagne | | Faka, Fakai (town name), Fakanci, Fakkanci | Pәku–Nu (cLela name) | | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, Mahuta and Fakai areas | |
| Fer | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | | | tFer | sg. wasFer, pl. asFer | | | Kukum Wipsi–Ni (cLela name) | | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Kukum town | |
| Jiәr | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | | | tJiәr | sg. wauJiәr, pl. aJiәr | | Gelanci Serim | Gelawa, Geeri–ni | | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bajidda; Rijau LGA, Niger State | |
| Kәr | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | | | tKәr | sg. wauKәr, pl. Kәrne | | Kela, Adoma Kelanci Kilinci | Keri–Ni Kelawa | | Kebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, north of Mahuta but south of the Kag river | |
| Koor | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | | | t–ma–Koor | sg. wauKoor, pl. aKoor | | | | | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bakara | |
| Ror | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | Dialect used for language development | | ǝt–ma–Ror | sg. wauRor, pl. aRor | | | Tudawa d–Gwan | | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA around Birnin Tudu | |
| Us | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | Us have no specific dialect but speak like the Ror | | tUs | sg. wauUs, pl. aUs, asUs | | | | | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, west of Fakai | |
| Zuksun | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | | | tZuksun | sg. wauZuksun, pl. aZuksun | | | Zusu Wipsi–ni | | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA around Tungan Kuka, south of Fakai | |
| Wuri-Gwamhyә–Mba | Northern | | | Gwamfi | | wa–Gwamhi sg. a–Gwamhi pl. and wa–Wuri sg. a–Wuri pl. | | Banganci | Lyase–ne Dәknu Bangawa for Gwamhi | Two peoples with one language | Kebbi State, Wasagu LGA; Gwamhi around Danko town and Wuri around Maga town | The term Wurkum is applied to the Kyak, Banda, Kulung, Kwonci, Maghdi, Kholok, Mingang, Pero, Piya, and Nyam group, several of which remain to be investigated. |
| cLela | Northwestern | | Zuru, Ribah | | cLela (Clela, C–Lela), Lelna | Kәlela sg., Lelna pl. | | Chilala Dakarci | Lalawa, Dakarkari, Dakkarkari, Kalla–Kalla, Cala–Cala | 47,000 (1949 G&C); 69,000 (1971 Welmers) | Kebbi State, Zuru, Sakaba and Wasagu LGAs; Niger State, Rijau LGA. Around Zuru town | |
| Rin | Shiroro | | Awәgә is sometimes classified as a dialect of Rin, but it may in fact be a distinct but vanishing language spoken by one Rin clan. | | Tә̀rĩ́, Tarin | sg. Bùrĩ,́ pl. Arĩ ́ | Arringeu, Pongu, Pongo, Pangu | | | 3,675 (1949 HDG); >20,000 (1988) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, near Tegina | Despite the indigenous name, forms of Pangu are preferred by the community for publications purposes. |

## Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Western, Reshe | Reshe (Tsureshe) | tsúnnɛ̀ | rìsə̄ | tàtswā | nāʃẽ́ | tɔ̃̄ | tēnzɔ̄ | tànsã̄ | dálànzɔ̀ | tānāʃẽ́ | úpwà |
| Western, Basa | Bassa | hĩn | jèbí | tàtɔ | néʃì | táná | tʃìhin | tʃéndʒe | tɔndatɔ | tʃíndʒìʃì | uḿpwá |
| Western, Duka | C'lela | tʃĩ́ | ʔílɨ̀ | tɨ́ːt͡ʃù | náːsé | tã́ | t͡ʃíhĩ̀ | tã̀ʔílɨ̀ (5 + 2) | jɨ́ːɾù | dóːɾè | ʔóːpá |
| Western, Duka | ut-Ma'in | tʃɘ̄ːn | jɘ̄ːr | tɘ̄t | náːs | tán | ʃìʃìn | tàʔèr (5 + 2) ? | éːr | dʒʷɘ̄ːr | ɔ̄p |
| Western, Kambari | Tsishingini (Kambari) | íyyán | ìɾɛ̀ | tàʔàtsú | nə́ʃín | táːwún | tə̀ːlí | tʃìndɛ̀ɾɛ́ | kùnlə̀ | kùttʃí | kùppá |
| Western, Kamuku | Western Acipa (Cicipu) | tôː | jápù | tâːtù | nósì | tã̂u | tóɾíhĩ̀ | tíndàjà | kùrílːò | kùtítːí | ùkúpːà |
| Western, Kamuku | Cinda (Kamuku) | ĩ́jɑ́ | ⁿdə́ɰə̀ | tɑ́tɔ̀ | nə́ʃì | tɑ́ɑ̀ | tə́nə́hì | tə́ndə́ɰə̀ | tə́ntɑ́tɔ̀ | tə́ndə́ʃì | òpɑ́ |
| Western, Kamuku | Fungwa (Cifungwa) | ń / biké | jógò | tátù | nɔ́ʃì | tá | tʃíjĩ̀ | tĩ́dòlò | tĩ́dátù | tĩ́díʃì | húpɛ́ |
| Western, Kamuku | Hungworo (Hungwere) | ĩ́ːjə̃́ | ʔʲə̃̂d͡ʒə̀ | tât̼ɔ̀ | ùnə́sĩ̀ | sàtá | ūt̼únìhĩ̄ | ūtə́ndə̀ɾʲə̄ | ūtátàt̼ɔ̄ (2 x 4) ? | ūtə́nə̀sĩ̄ | īkópʲè |
| Western, Kamuku | Pongu (Pangu) | hĩ́ː | ɾêːnù | tâːtù | nə̃́ːʃĩ̀ | tá | tʃíníhì | tə̃́ndə́ɾə̀ | tə̃́ndáːtù | tṹndúʃì | úpwá |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera | Anaguta (Iguta) | dínkā | rɛ̀ːpú | tààrū / tàːrū | nàːnzī | ʃùːbì | twàːsì | súnāːrí | ùrū | tɔ̀rbɔ̀ | būtúːrú |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Kauru | Gure (Gbiri-Niraɡu) | pi:ʃem | piːbɑː | piːtær | piːnɑːz | piːʃiː | piːtæ ʃi | piːsundæriː | piːkunæs | piːturuːriː | kiʃiːæbɑː / nikpiːrinætʃeti |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Kauru | Kurama (Akurmi) | nìdíi | tɨɽyá | tɨtáaɽɔ | tɨnáazɛ | úʃii | útasɛ | úsúndèɽì | úɽiɽé | ùtáɽá | níkúɽí |