# Maria W. Stewart

Maria W. Stewart (née Miller) (1803 – December 17, 1879) was an American writer, lecturer, teacher, and activist from Hartford, Connecticut. She was the first known American woman to publicly lecture on the abolitionist movement. Today, she is recognized for her role in both the abolitionist and women's rights movements in the United States.
Stewart published two pamphlets in The Liberator "Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, The Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build" (1831), which called for abolition and Black autonomy, and "Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria Stewart" (1832). Her public speaking career was brief, ending after a controversial speech in 1833. After retiring from lecturing, she worked as a school teacher and later became the head matron at Freedmen's Hospital in Washington, D.C. Stewart died in 1879.

## Early life

Maria Stewart was born Maria Miller in 1803 in Hartford, Connecticut, to free African-American parents. In 1806, by the age of three, she lost both parents and was sent to live with a white minister and his family where she worked as an indentured servant until around the age of 15, where she received no formal education. After leaving the minister's household, she moved to Boston and worked as a domestic servant. Around this time, she began to attend Sabbath School, or Sunday School and developed a lifelong affinity for religious work.
On August 10, 1826, she married James W. Stewart, an independent shipping agent in Boston, Massachusetts. The couple had no children and James Stewart died in 1829. After his death, Maria was denied any inheritance from his estate, which may have influenced her future advocacy for women's rights and equality.

## Public speaking

Maria Stewart was the first American woman to speak to a mixed audience of men, women, both Black and white (termed a "promiscuous" audience during the early 19th century). She was also the first African-American woman to lecture on women's rights, focusing particularly on the rights of Black women, religion, and social justice. Stewart is recognized as an important figure in early Black feminist thought during the Jim Crow era. She also became the first African-American woman to speak publicly calling for the abolition of slavery.
Her public speaking career began after she published a pamphlet "Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, The Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build" in 1831. She referred to her public lectures as "speeches" rather than "sermons," despite their religious tone and frequent Biblical references. Stewart delivered her speech in Boston to various organizations, including the African American Female Intelligence Society. When speaking to the African American Female Intelligence Society, Stewart emphasized the role gender played in preventing spiritual growth among African Americans.
David Walker was a prominent abolitionist and a member of the General Colored Association, and he influenced Maria Stewart's views on social justice and activism. His piece on race relations entitled David Walker's Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World (1829), called for Black people to rise against oppression and demand their rights. His writing address the realities of slavery and racism, urging African Americans to unite for freedom and dignity. Walker's ideas helped to shape Stewart's approach to public speaking and activism.
In 1830, Walker was found dead outside of his shop, just one year after Stewart's husband had died. This prompted a significant "born again" spiritual experience for Stewart, leading her to advocate for "Africa, freedom and God's cause". She maintained a stance against advocating for violence and instead promoted African-American exceptionalism, emphasizing the bond she perceived between God and African Americans. Stewart advocated for social and moral advancement while protesting the social conditions faced by African Americans.
In September 1832, Steward held her first speech, which was likely the first public speech given by a woman in America of any race. In 1832, she published a collection of religious meditations, Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria Stewart. She wrote and delivered four lectures between 1832 and 1833, including an adapted version of her Religion pamphlet delivered to the African American Female Intelligence Society in April 1832. Although her speeches were controversial William Lloyd Garrison, a friend and the central figure of the abolitionist movement, published all four in his newspaper, The Liberator, the first three individually, and later, all four together. Garrison had also recruited Stewart to write for The Liberator in 1831.
Stewart's public-speaking career lasted three years. She delivered her farewell lectures on September 21, 1833, in the schoolroom of the African Meeting House, known then as the Belknap Street Church, and as of 2019 part of Boston's Black Heritage Trail. Upon leaving Boston, she first moved to New York, where she published her collected works in 1835. She taught school and participated in the abolitionist movement, as well as literary organization. Stewart then moved to Baltimore and eventually to Washington, D.C., where she also taught school before becoming head matron (nurse) of the Freedmen's Hospital and Asylum in Washington, later the medical school of Howard University. She ultimately died at that hospital.

## Writings

In her writings, Stewart was very cogent when she talked about the plight of black people. She said, "Every man has a right to express his opinion. Many think, because your skins are tinged with a sable hue, that you are an inferior race of beings ... Then why should one worm say to another, Keep you down there, while I sit up yonder; for I am better than thou. It is not the color of the skin that makes the man, but it is the principle formed within the soul".
She believed that education, particularly religious education, would help lift black people out of ignorance and poverty. She had also denounced the racist laws that prevented black people from accessing schools, the vote or other basic rights. "She expressed concern for African Americans' temporal affairs and eternal salvation and urged them to develop their talents and intellect, live moral lives, and devote themselves to racial activism. Stewart challenged her audience to emulate the valor of the pilgrims and American revolutionaries in demanding freedom, and advised them to establish institutions such as grocery stores and churches to support their community." Stewart's radical point of view was not well received by her audience. During an economical and cultural transition to a new market, Stewart expressed concerns about the state of American democracy and called for a realization that a disillusioned spiritual attitude would affect long-term consequences for the country. William Lloyd Garrison said of her,
   Your whole adult life has been devoted to the noble task of educating and elevating your people, sympathizing with them in their affliction, and assisting them in their needs; and, though advanced in years, you are still animated with the spirit of your earlier life, and striving to do what in you lies to succor the outcast, reclaim the wanderer, and lift up the fallen. In this blessed work may you be generously assisted by those to whom you may make your charitable appeals, and who may have the means to give efficiency to your efforts.
She wanted to help the black community to do and be better as they circumnavigated their way around a country where racial subjugation was the law of the land. Grounded in Christian principles, Stewart's advocacy for women and racial uplift provided a basis for African-American women to mobilize for a greater national and international discourse.
In 1879, Stewart was able to re-publish Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria Stewart in the Washington Enterprise Publishing Company.

## Evangelism

Maria W. Stewart was influenced heavily by the Bible and Christian imagery in her writings and speeches. She evangelized during a time when the education women, and especially of black women, was frowned upon. She once wrote,
   having lost my position in Williamsburg, Long Island, and hearing the colored people were more religious and God-fearing in the South, I wended my way to Baltimore in 1852. But I found all was not gold that glistened; and when I saw the want of means for the advancement of the common English branches, with no literary resources for the improvement of the mind scarcely, I threw myself at the foot of the Cross, resolving to make the best of a bad bargain ...
Stewart was shocked at the miserable conditions of black people in Maryland, a slave state, where a relatively high percentage of black people were free. She eventually took a job as a teacher where she taught reading, writing, spelling and arithmetic. She was paid 50 cents a month while white teachers were paid $1. Her salary was barely enough to cover her monthly expenses. She readily admitted she was not good at handling her finances and to some degree people took advantage.
Women evangelists were often very poor and leaned on the kindness of strangers, friends and religious leaders to help sustain them. One such friend went by the name of Elizabeth Keckley, a former slave, seamstress and civil rights activist she wrote of fondly, "There was a lady, Mrs. Keckley, I knew, formerly from Baltimore, who proved to be an ardent friend to me in my great emergency. ..." Stewart was born free and Keckley a slave, but both women saw a need to be active in the burgeoning civil rights movement of the late 19th century.
The preaching of God's word during the 1800s was seen in society as a male role even among some black religious institutions. As one writer said: Women in the black churches were relegated to positions that posed no real threat to the power structure maintained by preachers, deacons, and other male leaders. Women were usually assigned roles of Sunday school teachers, exhorters, secretaries, cooks, and cleaners. Such positions paralleled those reserved for women within the domestic sphere of the home."
Stewart believed that she was called to do God's work even at great peril to herself. She used her platform to talk about racial injustices and sexism by highlighting the contradictions between the message of peace and unity preached from the pulpits of the white churches versus the reality of the slavery. According to one writer:
   "For Stewart, this ... newly freed community ... barely one generation from slavery, yearning for a fully realized freedom rather than a nominal one. Given the small size of the free Black community, it is easy to assume solidarity, cohesion, and unquestioned allegiance to the Black church. But just as revolutionary Americans had to grapple with what it meant to be 'American,'... Blacks ... just 50 years from slavery in Massachusetts, were grappling with their identity as free people, and there were likely competing agendas being cast forth of what Blacks should 'do' and how they should operate."
Between January 7, 1832 and May 4, 1833, William Lloyd Garrison's newspaper, The Liberator, published six articles by Stewart. In these articles, Stewart spoke in two seemingly contradictory registers as she described God's interactions with humanity. On the one hand, she portrayed a gentle God who directed his angels to carry oppressed individuals "into Abraham's bosom [where] they shall be comforted"; on the other hand, she warned sinners—specifically white American sinners—of a wrathful and violent God who was on the verge of sending "horror and devastation" to the world. While these two images may seem paradoxical to contemporary readers, they reflect the connection between sympathy and violence that permeated Stewart's theology and structured her concept of Christian community. She believed God's compassion for suffering believers would motivate him to punish their tormenters and that African-American Christians should follow his example by protecting one another with force if necessary.
This juxtaposition of Christian mercy and retributive violence also points to the crucial but often minimized role of African-American women such as Stewart who were uniquely situated to collaborate with black nationalists and white abolitionists. As an important figure in radical political action, Stewart helps us to better understand the multivalent forces that shaped resistance movements in the early nineteenth century.

## Speeches

Maria Stewart delivered four public lectures that The Liberator published during her lifetime, addressing women's rights, moral and educational aspiration, occupational advancement, and the abolition of slavery.
She delivered the lecture "Why Sit Ye Here and Die?" on September 21, 1832, at Franklin Hall, Boston, to the New England Anti-Slavery Society. She demanded equal rights for African-American women:
   I have asked several individuals of my sex, who transact business for themselves, if providing our girls were to give them the most satisfactory references, they would not be willing to grant them an equal opportunity with others? Their reply has been—for their own part, they had no objection; but as it was not the custom, were they to take them into their employ, they would be in danger of losing the public patronage.
   And such is the powerful force of prejudice. Let our girls possess what amiable qualities of soul they may; let their characters be fair and spotless as innocence itself; let their natural taste and ingenuity be what they may; it is impossible for scarce an individual of them to rise above the condition of servants. Ah! why is this cruel and unfeeling distinction? Is it merely because God has made our complexion to vary? If it be, O shame to soft, relenting humanity! "Tell it not in Gath! publish it not in the streets of Askelon!" Yet, after all, methinks were the American free people of color to turn their attention more assiduously to moral worth and intellectual improvement, this would be the result: prejudice would gradually diminish, and the whites would be compelled to say, unloose those fetters!
In the same speech Stewart emphasized that African-American women were not so different from African-American men:
   Look at many of the most worthy and interesting of us doomed to spend our lives in gentlemen's kitchens. Look at our young men, smart, active and energetic, with souls filled with ambitious fire; if they look forward, alas! what are their prospects? They can be nothing but the humblest laborers, on account of their dark complexions ...
She continued the theme that African Americans were subjected not only to Southern slavery but to Northern racism and economic structures:
   I have heard much respecting the horrors of slavery; but may Heaven forbid that the generality of my color throughout these United States should experience any more of its horrors than to be a servant of servants, or hewers of wood and drawers of water! Tell us no more of southern slavery; for with few exceptions, although I may be very erroneous in my opinion, yet I consider our condition but little better than that.
Notably, Stewart critiqued Northern treatment of African Americans at a meeting in which Northerners gathered to criticize and plan action against Southern treatment of African Americans. She challenged the supposed dichotomy between the inhumane enslavement of the South and the normal proceedings of capitalism in the North, arguing that the relegation of African Americans to service jobs was also a great injustice and waste of human potential. In doing so, she anticipated arguments about the intersection of racism, capitalism, and sexism that would later be advanced by womanist thinkers.
Her Christian faith strongly influenced Stewart. She often cited Biblical influences and the Holy Spirit, and implicitly critiqued societal failure to educate her and others like her:
   Yet, after all, methinks there are no chains so galling as the chains of ignorance—no fetters so binding as those that bind the soul, and exclude it from the vast field of useful and scientific knowledge. O, had I received the advantages of early education, my ideas would, ere now, have expanded far and wide; but, alas! I possess nothing but moral capability—no teachings but the teachings of the Holy spirit.
Maria W. Stewart delivered the speech entitled "An Address: African Rights and Liberty" to a mixed audience at the African Masonic Hall in Boston on February 27, 1833. It was not received well and it would be her last public address before she embarked on a life of activism. The speech says in part:
   Most of our color have been taught to stand in fear of the white man from their earliest infancy, to work as soon as they could walk, and to call "master" before they scarce could lisp the name of mother. Continual fear and laborious servitude have in some degree lessened in us that natural force and energy which belong to man; or else, in defiance of opposition, our men, before this, would have nobly and boldly contended for their rights ... give the man of color an equal opportunity with the white from the cradle to manhood, and from manhood to the grave, and you would discover the dignified statesman, the man of science, and the philosopher. But there is no such opportunity for the sons of Africa ... I fear that our powerful ones are fully determined that there never shall be ... O ye sons of Africa, when will your voices be heard in our legislative halls, in defiance of your enemies, contending for equal rights and liberty? ... Is it possible, I exclaim, that for the want of knowledge we have labored for hundreds of years to support others, and been content to receive what they chose to give us in return? Cast your eyes about, look as far as you can see; all, all is owned by the lordly white, except here and there a lowly dwelling which the man of color, midst deprivations, fraud, and opposition has been scarce able to procure. Like King Solomon, who put neither nail nor hammer to the temple, yet received the praise; so also have the white Americans gained themselves a name, like the names of the great men that are in the earth, while in reality we have been their principal foundation and support. We have pursued the shadow, they have obtained the substance; we have performed the labor, they have received the profits; we have planted the vines, they have eaten the fruits of them.
This very powerful and thought provoking speech about the greatness of African-American people gives us today a glimpse into the mind of an important historical figure in African-American history.

## Death

Stewart died at Freedmen's Hospital on December 17, 1879. She was originally buried in Graceland Cemetery, which closed two decades later after extensive litigation and most of the land used by the Washington Electric Railway. She was reinterred at Woodlawn Cemetery.
Stewart is included in Daughters of Africa: An International Anthology of Words and Writings by Women of African Descent, edited by Margaret Busby (1992), the title of which is inspired by Stewart's 1831 declaration, in which she said:
   O, ye daughters of Africa, awake! awake! arise! no longer sleep nor slumber, but distinguish yourselves. Show forth to the world that ye are endowed with noble and exalted faculties.
Additionally, Stewart is included in the first chapter of Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought, edited by Beverly Guy-Sheftall (1995), The two speeches by Stewart "Religion And The Pure Principles of Morality, The Sure Foundation On Which We Must Build" and "Lecture Delivered at Franklin Hall" were widely incorporated into a Black feminist tradition.

## Impact and influence

Maria Stewart was an African-American activist, lecturer, and writer who made significant contributions to the abolitionist and women's rights movements. She was among the first Black women to publicly address both racial and gender issues.
Stewart's work influenced future activists such as Sojourner Truth and Ida B. Wells and laid the groundwork for Black feminist thought. Her writings, including her speeches and autobiography, are accessible today. Despite facing poverty and discrimination, Stewart's efforts have had a lasting impact on the fields of womanist theology and feminist studies.

## Works
### Works by Stewart

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries
* Online books
* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries
* Productions of Mrs. Maria W. Stewart presented to the First African Baptist Church and Society of the City of Boston. Boston: Friends of Freedom and Virtue, 1835. Reprinted from The Liberator, Vol. 2, No. 46 (November 17, 1832), p. 183.
** "A Lecture at the Franklin Hall, Boston, September 21, 1832" (Productions of Mrs. Maria W. Stewart, pp. 51–56), in: Dorothy Porter (ed.), Early Negro Writing, 1760-1837, Black Classic Press, 1995; pp. 136–140.
** "An Address delivered at the African Masonic Hall, Boston, February 27, 1833" (Productions of Mrs. Maria W. Stewart, pp. 63–72), Dorothy Porter (ed.), Early Negro Writing, 1760-1837, Black Classic Press, 1995; pp. 129–135. As "On African Rights and Liberty", in: Margaret Busby (ed.), Daughters of Africa, Ballantine Books, 1994, pp. 47–52.
* Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria W. Stewart: presented to the First African Baptist Church and Society, in the city of Boston. Boston: Printed by Garrison and Knapp, 1879.

### Works about Stewart

* Marilyn Richardson, Maria W. Stewart: America's First Black Woman Political Writer, Indiana University Press, 1988.
* Marilyn Richardson, "Maria W. Stewart," in Feintuch, Burt, and David H. Watters (eds), The Encyclopedia Of New England: The Culture and History of an American Region, Yale University Press, 2005.
* Marilyn Richardson, "Maria. W. Stewart", Oxford Companion to African American Literature. Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 379–380.
* Marilyn Richardson, "'What If I Am A Woman?' Maria W. Stewart's Defense of Black Women's Political Activism", in Donald M. Jacobs (ed.), Courage and Conscience: Black & White Abolitionists in Boston, Indiana University Press, 1993.
* Rodger Streitmatter, "Maria W. Stewart: Firebrand of the Abolition Movement", Raising Her Voice: African-American Woman Journalists Who Changed History, The University Press of Kentucky, 1994, pp. 15–24.