# Western Neo-Aramaic

Western Neo-Aramaic (ܐܰܪܳܡܰܝ, arōmay, "Aramaic"), more commonly referred to as Siryon (ܣܪܝܘܢ, siryōn, "Syriac"), is a modern variety of the Western Aramaic branch consisting of three closely related dialects. Today, it is spoken by Christian and Muslim Arameans (Syriacs) in only three villages – Maaloula, Jubb'adin and Bakhʽa – in the Anti-Lebanon mountains of western Syria. Bakhʽa was vastly destroyed during the Syrian civil war and most of the community fled to other parts of Syria or Lebanon. Western Neo-Aramaic is believed to be one of the closest living languages to the language of Jesus, whose first language, according to scholarly consensus, was Galilean Aramaic belonging to the Western branch as well; all other remaining Neo-Aramaic languages are Eastern Aramaic.

## Distribution and history

Western Neo-Aramaic is the sole surviving remnant of the once extensive Western Aramaic-speaking area, which also included the Palestine region and Lebanon in the 7th century. It is now spoken exclusively by the inhabitants of Maaloula and Jubb'adin, about 60 kilometres (37 mi) northeast of Damascus. The continuation of this little cluster of Aramaic in a sea of Arabic is partly due to the relative isolation of the villages and their close-knit Christian and Muslim communities.
Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, there was a linguistic shift to Arabic for local Muslims and later for remaining Christians; Arabic displaced various Aramaic dialects, including Western Aramaic varieties, as the first language of the majority. Despite this, Western Aramaic appears to have survived for a relatively long time at least in some remote mountain villages in Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. In fact, up until the 17th century, travelers in Lebanon still reported on several Aramaic-speaking villages.
The dialect of Bakhʽa was the most conservative. Arabic less influenced it than the other dialects and retains some vocabulary that is obsolete in other dialects. The dialect of Jubb'adin changed the most. Arabic heavily influenced it and has a more developed phonology. The dialect of Maaloula is somewhere in between the two, but closer to that of Jubb'adin.
The cross-linguistic influence between Aramaic and Arabic has been mutual, as Syrian Arabic itself (and Levantine Arabic in general) retains an Aramaic substratum. Similar to the Eastern Neo-Aramaic languages, Western Neo-Aramaic uses Kurdish loanwords unlike other Western Aramaic dialects, e. g. in their negation structure: "Čū ndōmex", meaning "I do not sleep" in the Maalouli dialect. These influences might indicate an older historical connection between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Aramaic speakers. Other strong linguistic influences on Western Neo-Aramaic include Akkadian during the Neo-Babylonian period, e. g. the names of the months: āšbaṭ (Akk. šabāṭu, "February"), ōḏar (Akk. ad(d)aru, "March"), iyyar (Akk. ayyaru, "May") or agricultural terms such as nīra (Akk. nīru, "yoke"), sekkṯa (Akk. sikkatu, "plowshare"), senta (Akk. sendu, "to grind") or nbūba (Akk. enbūbu, "fruit").
As in most of the Levant before the introduction of Islam in the seventh century, the three villages were originally all Christian until the 18th century. Maaloula is the only village that retains a sizeable Melkite Christian population belonging to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and Melkite Greek Catholic Church; the inhabitants of Bakhʽa and Jubb’adin converted to Islam over the generations. However, the first Muslims were not native converts, but Arab families from Homs who were settled in the villages during the Ottoman era to monitor the Christian population. Maaloula glows in the pale blue wash with which houses are painted every year in honor of Mary, mother of Jesus.
Historical accounts, as documented by the French linguist Jean Parisot in 1898, suggest that the people of Maaloula and nearby areas claim to be descendants of migrants from the Sinjar region (modern Iraq). According to their oral traditions, their ancestors embarked on a substantial migration in ancient times, driven by the challenges posed by the Muslim occupation of the northern part of Mesopotamia. Seeking refuge, they crossed the Euphrates and traversed the Palmyrene desert, eventually finding a lasting sanctuary among Western Aramaic-speaking communities in the highlands of eastern Syria. In Maaloula and the surrounding villages, the surname ”Sinjar“ (Aramaic:ܣܢܓܐܪ) is borne by some Christian and Muslim families.
All three remaining Western Neo-Aramaic dialects are facing critical endangerment as living languages. As with any village community in the 21st century, young residents are migrating into major cities like Damascus and Aleppo in search of better employment opportunities, thus forcing them into monolingual Arabic-speaking settings, in turn straining the opportunity to actively maintain Western Neo-Aramaic as a language of daily use. Nevertheless, the Syrian government provides support for teaching the language.
Unlike Syriac, which has a rich literary tradition, Western Neo-Aramaic was solely passed down orally for generations until 2006 and was unwritten. Since 2006, Maaloula has been home to an Aramaic language institute established by the Damascus University that teaches courses to keep the language alive. The institute's activities were suspended in 2010 amid concerns that the square Maalouli Aramaic alphabet used in the program, which was developed by the chairman of the language institute, George Rizkalla (Rezkallah), resembled the square script of the Hebrew alphabet. Consequently, all signs featuring the square Maalouli script were taken down. The program stated that they would instead use the more distinct Syriac alphabet, although use of Maalouli square script has continued to some degree. Al Jazeera Arabic also broadcast a program about Western Neo-Aramaic and the villages in which it is spoken with the square script still in use.
In December 2016, during an Aramaic Singing Festival in Maaloula, a modified version of an older style of the Aramaic alphabet closer to the Phoenician alphabet was used for Western Neo-Aramaic. This script seems to be used as a true alphabet with letters to represent both consonants and vowels instead of the traditional system of the Aramaic alphabet where it is used as an abjad. A recently published book about the Maalouli Aramaic dialect also uses this script.
Aramaic Bible Translation (ABT) has spent over a decade translating the Bible into Maalouli Western Neo-Aramaic and recording audio for Portrait of Jesus. Rinyo, the Syriac language organization, has published ABT's content, developed by Kanusoft.com. On their website, the Book of Psalms and Portrait of Jesus are available in Western Neo-Aramaic using the Syriac Serta script. Additionally, a New Testament translation into Western Neo-Aramaic was completed in 2017 and is now accessible online.
An electronic speech corpus of Maalouli Western Neo-Aramaic has been available online since 2022.

## Phonology

The phonology of Western Neo-Aramaic has developed quite differently from other Aramaic dialects/languages. The labial consonants of older Western Aramaic, /p/ and /f/, have been retained in Bakhʽa and Maaloula while they have mostly collapsed to /f/ in Jubb'adin under influence from Arabic. The labial consonant pair /b~v/ has collapsed to /b/ in all three villages. Amongst dental consonants, the fricatives /θ ð/ are retained while /d/ have become /ð/ in most places and /t/, while remaining a phoneme, has had its traditional position in Aramaic words replaced by /ts/ in Bakhʽa, and /tʃ/ in Maaloula and Jubb'adin. However, [ti] is the usual form for the relative particle in these two villages, with a variant [tʃi], where Bakhʽa always uses [tsi]. Among the velar consonants, the traditional voiced pair of /ɡ ɣ/ has collapsed into /ɣ/, while /ɡ/ still remains a phoneme in some words. The unvoiced velar fricative, /x/, is retained, but its plosive complement /k/, while also remaining a distinct phoneme, has in its traditional positions in Aramaic words started to undergo palatalization. In Bakhʽa, the palatalization is hardly apparent; in Maaloula, it is more obvious, and often leads to [kʲ]; in Jubb'adin, it has become /tʃ/, and has thus merged phonemically with the original positions of /t/. The original uvular plosive, /q/, has also moved forward in Western Neo-Aramaic. In Bakhʽa it has become a strongly post-velar plosive, and in Maaloula more lightly post-velar. In Jubb'adin, however, it has replaced the velar plosive, and become /k/. Its phonology is strikingly similar to Arabic both being sister Semitic languages.

### Consonants

| | Labial | Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Dental/Alveolar | Dental/Alveolar | Dental/Alveolar | Dental/Alveolar | Dental/Alveolar | Dental/Alveolar | Dental/Alveolar | Palato- alveolar | Palato- alveolar | Palatal | Palatal | Velar | Velar | Uvular | Uvular | Pharyn- geal | Pharyn- geal | Glottal | Glottal |
| | Labial | Labial | plain | plain | plain | plain | emphatic | emphatic | emphatic | emphatic | | | | Palato- alveolar | Palato- alveolar | Palatal | Palatal | Velar | Velar | Uvular | Uvular | Pharyn- geal | Pharyn- geal | Glottal | Glottal |
| Nasal | | m | | | n | n | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Plosive | p | b | t | t | d | d | tˤ | tˤ | | | | | (kʲ) | | k | ɡ | q | | | | ʔ | |
| Affricate | | | | | (ts) | | | | | | (tʃ | dʒ) | | | | | | | | | | |
| Fricative | f | | θ | ð | s | z | | ðˤ | sˤ | zˤ | ʃ | (ʒ) | | | x | ɣ | | | ħ | ʕ | h | |
| Approximant | | w | | | l | l | | | | | | | | j | | | | | | | | |
| Trill | | | | | r | r | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

### Vowels

Western Neo-Aramaic has the following set of vowels:
Vowels :
| | Front | Back |
| Close | i | u |
| Open-mid | e | o |
| Open | a | a |

## Alphabet
### Square Maalouli alphabet

Square Maalouli alphabet used for Western Neo-Aramaic. Words beginning with a vowel are written with an initial . Short vowels are omitted or written with diacritics, long vowels are transcribed with macrons (Āā, Ēē, Īī, Ōō, Ūū) and are written with mater lectionis ( for /o/ and /u/, for /i/, which are also used at the end of a word if it ends with one of these vowels and if a word begins with any of these long vowels, they begin with + the mater lectionis). Words ending with /a/ are written with at the end of the word, while words ending with /e/ are written with at the end. Sometimes is used both for final and instead of also using .
| Maalouli letter: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Hebrew letter: | א | בּ | ב | גּ | ג | דּ | ד | ה | ו | ז | ח | ט | י | כּ ךּ | כ ך | ל | מ ם | נ ן | ס | ע | פּ ףּ | פ ף | צ ץ | ק | ר | שׁ | תּ | ת | ת |
| Latin letter/Transliteration | Aa, Ee, Ii, Oo, Uu Āā, Ēē, Īī, Ōō, Ūū | Bb | Vv | Gg | Ġġ | Dd | Ḏḏ | Hh | Ww | Zz | Ḥḥ | Ṭṭ | Yy | Kk | H̱ẖ | Ll | Mm | Nn | Ss | Ҁҁ | Pp | Ff | Ṣṣ | Qq | Rr | Šš | Tt | Ṯṯ | Čč |
| Pronunciation | ∅ | /b/ | /v/ | /g/, /ʒ/ | /ɣ/ | /d/ | /ð/ | /h/ | /w/ | /z/ | /ħ/ | /tˤ/ | /j/ | /k/ | /x/ | /l/ | /m/ | /n/ | /s/ | /ʕ/ | /p/ | /f/ | /sˤ/ | /k/~/ḳ/ | /r/ | /ʃ/ | /t/ | /θ/ | /tʃ/ |

### Syriac and Arabic alphabet

Syriac (Serta) and Arabic alphabet used for Western Neo-Aramaic.
| Syriac letter: | ܐ‎ | ܒ‎ | ܒ݆‎ | ܓ‎ | ܔ‎ | ܓ݂‎ | ܕ‎ | ܕ݂‎ | ܗ‎ | ܘ‎ | ܙ‎ | ܚ‎ | ܚ݂‎ | ܛ‎ | ܜ‎ | ܝ‎ | ܟ‎ | ܟ݂‎ | ܠ‎ | ܡ‎ | ܢ‎ | ܣ‎ | ܥ‎ | ܦ‎ | ܨ‎ | ܨ̇‎ | ܩ‎ | ܪ‎ | ܫ‎ | ܬ‎ | ܬ݂‎ | ܬ̤‎ |
| Arabic letter: | ا‎ | ب‎ | پ‎ | گ‎ | ج‎ | غ‎ | د‎ | ذ‎ | ه‎ | و‎ | ز‎ | ح‎ | خ‎ | ط‎ | ظ‎ | ي‎ | ک‎ | خ‎ | ل‎ | م‎ | ن‎ | س‎ | ع‎ | ف‎ | ص‎ | ض‎ | ق‎ | ر‎ | ش‎ | ت‎ | ث‎ | چ‎ |
| Pronunciation | /ʔ/, ∅ | /b/ | /p/ | /g/ | /dʒ/ | /ɣ/ | /d/ | /ð/ | /h/ | /w/ | /z/ | /ħ/ | /x/ | /tˤ/ | /dˤ/ | /j/ | /k/ | /x/ | /l/ | /m/ | /n/ | /s/ | /ʕ/ | /f/ | /sˤ/ | /ðˤ/ | /q/~/ḳ/ | /r/ | /ʃ/ | /t/ | /θ/ | /tʃ/ |
| Syriac letter: | ܰ‎ | ܶ‎ | ܳ‎ | ܺ‎ | ܽ‎ |
| Arabic letter: | ـَ | ـِ | ـُ | ي | و |
| Pronunciation | /a/ | /e/ | /o/ | /i/ | /u/ |

### Alternate Aramaic alphabet

Characters of the script system similar to the Old Aramaic or Phoenician alphabet used occasionally for Western Neo-Aramaic with matching transliteration. The script is used as a true alphabet with distinct letters for all phonemes including vowels instead of the traditional abjad system with plosive-fricative pairs.
| Letter | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Transliteration | b | ġ | ḏ | h | w | z | ḥ | ṭ | y | k | x | l | m | n | s | ʕ | p | f | ṣ | ḳ | r | š | t | ṯ | č | ž | ᶄ | ḏ̣ | ẓ | ' |
| Pronunciation | /b/ | /ɣ/ | /ð/ | /h/ | /w/ | /z/ | /ħ/ | /tˤ/ | /j/ | /k/ | /x/ | /l/ | /m/ | /n/ | /s/ | /ʕ/ | /p/ | /f/ | /sˤ/ | /k/~/ḳ/ | /r/ | /ʃ/ | /t/ | /θ/ | /tʃ/ | /ʒ/ | /kʲ/ | /ðˤ/ | /dˤ/ | /ʔ/ |
| Letter | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Transliteration | a | ā | e | ē | i | ī | o | ō | u | ū | ᵊ |
| Pronunciation | /a/ | /a:/ | /e/ | /e:/ | /i/ | /i:/ | /o/ | /o:/ | /u/ | /u:/ | /ə/ |

## Liturgical language and sample of Lord's Prayer

Lord's Prayer in Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo Neo-Aramaic, Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) and Hebrew.
There are various versions of the Lord's Prayer in Western Neo-Aramaic, incorporating altered loanwords from several languages, notably Arabic: Šēḏa (from Akk. šēdu, meaning "evil" or "devil"), yiṯkan (from Ar. litakun, meaning "that it may be" or "to be"), ġfurlēḥ & nġofrin (from Ar. yaghfir, meaning "to forgive") and čaġribyōṯa (from Ar. jarīb, meaning "temptation").
Several decades ago, the Christian inhabitants of Maaloula began translating Christian prayers and texts into their vernacular Aramaic dialect, given that their actual liturgical languages are Arabic and Koine Greek.
Pastor Edward Robinson reported that his companion, Eli Smith, found several manuscripts in the Syriac language in Maaloula in 1834, but no one could read or understand them. Classical Syriac, the Aramaic dialect of Edessa, was utilized as the liturgical language by local Syriac Melkite Christians following the Byzantine rite. There was a compilation of Syriac manuscripts from the monasteries and churches of Maaloula. However, a notable portion of these manuscripts met destruction upon the directives of a bishop in the 19th century.
| Western Neo-Aramaic | Turoyo Neo-Aramaic | Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) | Hebrew |
| Ōboḥ/Ōbay/Abūnaḥ ti bišmō/bišmōya yičqattaš ešmaẖ | Abuna d-këtyo bišmayo miqadeš ešmoḵ | Aḇūn d-ḇa-šmayyāʾ neṯqaddaš šmāḵ | Avinu šebašamayim yitkadeš šimḵa |
| yṯēle molkaẖ/malkuṯaẖ yiṯkan ti čbaҁēleh | g-dëṯyo i malkuṯayḏoḵ howe u ṣebyonayḏoḵ | tēṯēʾ malkūṯāḵ nēhwēʾ ṣeḇyānāḵ | tavo malḵutḵa, ya'aseh retsonẖa |
| iẖmel bišmō/bišmōya ẖet ҁalarҁa. | ḵud d'kit bi šmayo hawḵa bi arҁo ste | ʾaykannāʾ d-ḇa-šmayyāʾ ʾāp̄ b-ʾarʿāʾ. | kevašamayim ken ba'arets. |
| Aplēḥ leḥmaḥ uẖẖil yōmaḥ | Haw lan u laḥmo d-sniquṯayḏan adyawma | Haḇ lan laḥmāʾ d-sūnqānan yawmānā | Et leẖem ẖukenu ten lanu hayom |
| ġfurlēḥ ḥṭiyōṯaḥ eẖmil | wa šbaq lan a-ḥṭohayḏan ḵud d-aḥna ste | wa-šḇōq lan ḥawbayn wa-ḥṭāhayn | uselaẖ lanu al ẖata'enu |
| nġofrin lti maḥiṭ ҁemmaynaḥ | sbaq lan lanek laf elan | ʾaykanāʾ d-āp̄ ḥnan šḇaqn l-ḥayāḇayn | kefi šesolẖim gam anaẖnu laẖot'im lanu |
| wlōfaš ttaẖlennaḥ bčaġribyōṯa | w lo maҁbret lan l'nesyuno | w-lāʾ taʿlan l-nesyōnāʾ | ve'al tavienu lide nisayon |
| bes ḥaslannaḥ m-šēḏa | elo mfaṣay lan mu bišo | ʾelāʾ paṣān men bīšāʾ | ki im ẖaltsenu min hara |

## Miscellaneous words and sample phrases

| English | Western Neo-Aramaic |
| Hello/Peace | šlōma |
| Altar server | šammōša |
| Morning | ʕṣofra/emḥar |
| Mountain | ṭūra |
| Water | mōya |
| God | alō (defined)/ilōha (undefined) |
| Sun | šimša |
| Mouth | femma |
| Head | rayša |
| Village | qriṯa |
| I swear (by the Cross) | b'sliba |
| Nice | ḥalya |
| Here/Here it is | ḥōxa/ḥōxa hū |
| Liar | daklōna |
| After | bōṯar min |
| Son | ebra |
| Daughter | berča |
| Brother/Brothers | ḥōna/ḥunō, ḥunū(ya) |
| Sister | ḥōṯa |
| Donkey | ḥmōra |
| Tongue/Language | liššōna |
| Money | kiršō (from Akk. "kīršu") |
| Nation | ōmṯa |
| Year | ešna |
| Moon | ṣahra |
| King | malka |
| Earth | arʕa |
| Dove | yawna |
| Long live! | tiḥi! |
| Grave | qabra |
| Food | xōla |
| (Paternal) Uncle | ḏōḏa |
| (Maternal) Uncle | ḥōla |
| (Paternal) Aunt | ʕamṯa |
| (Maternal) Aunt | ḥōlča |
| Father | ōbu |
| Mother | emma |
| My mother | emmay (lit. "my mothers", archaic phrase) |
| Grandfather | žetta |
| Grandmother | žičča |
| Way | tarba |
| Ocean | yamma |
| Congratulations! | ibrex! |
| Aramean (Syriac) | sūray |
| Sky | šmōya/šmō |
| Who? | mōn? |
| Love | rḥmōṯa |
| Kiss | nōšqṯa |
| How are you? | ex čōb? (m)/ex čiba? (f) |
| Fast | ṣawma |
| Human | barnōša |
| Holy Spirit | ruḥa qutšō |
| Poison | samma |
| Sword | seyfa |
| Bone | ġerma |
| Blood | eḏma |
| Half | felka |
| Skin | ġelta |
| Hunger | xafna |
| Stone/Rock | xefa |
| Vineyard | xarma |
| Back | ḥaṣṣa |
| Goat | ʕezza |
| Lip | sefta |
| Chin/Beard | ḏeqna |
| Tooth/Crag | šenna |
| Past | zibnō |
| Queen | malkṯa |
| The little man | ġabrōna zʕōra |
| Peace to all of you | šlōma lxulḥun |
| Who is this? | mōn hanna? (m)/mōn hōḏ? (f) |
| I am Aramean (Syriac) and my language is Aramaic (Syriac) | ana sūray w liššōni siryōn |
| We are Arameans (Syriacs) and our language is Aramaic (Syriac) | anaḥ suroy w liššonaḥ siryōn |
| Church | klēsya (Greek loanword) |
| Shirt | qameṣča (from lat. "camisia") |
| What's your name? (m) | mō ušmax? (m)/mō ušmiš (f) |
| Dream | ḥelma |
| Old man | sōba |