# Kinyarwanda

Kinyarwanda, Rwandan or Rwanda, officially known as Ikinyarwanda, is a Bantu language and the national language of Rwanda. It is a dialect of the Rwanda-Rundi language that is also spoken in adjacent parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in Uganda, where the dialect is known as ikinyakore,Rufumbira,or Urufumbira. Kinyarwanda is universal among the native population of Rwanda and is mutually intelligible with Kirundi, the national language of neighbouring Burundi. Kinyabwishya and Kinyamulenge are mutually intelligible dialects spoken in the North Kivu and South Kivu provinces of neighbouring DR Congo.
In 2010, the Rwanda Academy of Language and Culture (RALC) was established to help promote and sustain Kinyarwanda. The organization attempted an orthographic reform in 2014, but it was met with pushback due to their perceived top-down and political nature, among other reasons.

## Geographic distribution

Kinyarwanda is spoken in Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda.

## Phonology
### Consonants

The table below gives the consonants of Kinyarwanda.
| | | Bilabial | Labiodental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | | n | | ɲ | (ŋ) | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p$^1$ | | t | | (c) | k | |
| Plosive | voiced | (b) | | d | | (ɟ) | ɡ | |
| Affricate | voiceless | | p͡f | t͡s | t͡ʃ | | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | f | s | ʃ | ç | | h |
| Fricative | voiced | β | v | z | ʒ | | | (ɦ) |
| Approximant | Approximant | | | | | j | w | |
| Rhotic | Rhotic | | | ɾ | | | | |
* /p/ is only found in loanwords.
* Consonants in parentheses are allophones.

### Vowels

The table below gives the vowel sounds of Kinyarwanda.
| | Front | Back |
| Close | i iː | u uː |
| Mid | e eː | o oː |
| Open | a aː | a aː |

### Tone

Kinyarwanda is a tonal language. Like many Bantu languages, it has a two-way contrast between high and low tones (low-tone syllables may be analyzed as toneless). The realization of tones in Kinyarwanda is influenced by a complex set of phonological rules.

## Orthography

| Letter(s) | a | b | c | cy | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | jy | k | m | n | ny | o | p | pf | r | s | sh | shy | t | ts | u | v | w | y | z |
| IPA | a, aː | β, b | t͡ʃ | c | d | e, eː | f | ɡ, ɟ | h, ɦ | i, iː | ʒ | ɟ | k, c | m | n, ŋ | ɲ | o, oː | p | p͡f | ɾ | s | ʃ | ç | t | t͡s | u, uː | v | w | j | z |
Except in a few morphological contexts, the sequences 'ki' and 'ke' may be pronounced interchangeably as [ki] and [ke] or [ci] and [ce] according to speaker's preference.
The letters ⟨a, e, i⟩ at the end of a word followed by a word starting with a vowel often follows a pattern of omission in common speech (sandhi), though the orthography remains the same. Consider the following excerpt of the Rwandan anthem: Reka tukurate tukuvuge ibigwi wowe utubumbiye hamwe twese Abanyarwanda uko watubyaye berwa, sugira, singizwa iteka. would be pronounced as Reka tukurate tukuvug' ibigwi wow' utubumiye hamwe twes' abanyarwand' uko watubyaye berwa, sugira singizw' iteka.
There are some discrepancies in pronunciation from orthographic Cw and Cy. The glides /w j/ strengthen to stops in consonant clusters. For example, rw (as in Rwanda) is normally pronounced [ɾɡw]. The differences are the following:
       OrthographyPronunciation mw[mŋ] nw[nŋw] nyw[ɲŋw] or [ŋwa] pw[pk] fw[fk] pfw[p͡fk] bw[bɡ] vw[vɡ] tw[tkw] tsw[t͡skw] cw[t͡ʃkw] sw[skw] shw[ʃkw] dw[dɡw] zw[zɡw] jw[ʒɡw] rw[ɾɡw] my[mɲ] py[pc] ty[tc] sy[sc] by[bɟ] ndy[ndɟ] ry[ɾɟ]
These are all sequences; [bɡ], for example, is not labial-velar [ɡ͡b]. Even when Rwanda is pronounced [ɾwaːnda] rather than [ɾɡwaːnda], the onset is a sequence, not a labialized [ɾʷ].

## Grammar
### Nouns

Kinyarwanda uses 16 of the Bantu noun classes. Sometimes these are grouped into 10 pairs so that most singular and plural forms of the same word are included in the same class. The table below shows the 16 noun classes and how they are paired in two commonly used systems.
| Prefix | Classification | Classification | Classification | Number | Typical words | Example |
| Prefix | Bantu | Cox | ??? | Number | Typical words | Example |
| umu- | 1 | 1 | 1 | singular | humans | umuntu – person |
| aba- | 2 | 1 | 1 | plural | humans | abantu – people |
| umu- | 3 | 2 | 2 | singular | trees, shrubs and things that extend | umusozi – hill |
| imi- | 4 | 2 | 2 | plural | trees, shrubs and things that extend | imisozi – hills |
| iri- | 5 | 5 | 3 | singular | things in quantities, liquids | iryinyo – tooth |
| ama- | 6 | 5/8/9 | 3/8/9 | plural (also substances) | things in quantities, liquids | amenyo – teeth |
| iki- | 7 | 4 | 4 | singular | generic, large, or abnormal things | ikintu – thing |
| ibi- | 8 | 4 | 4 | plural | generic, large, or abnormal things | ibintu – things |
| in- | 9 | 3 | 5 | singular | some plants, animals and household implements | inka – cow |
| in- | 10 | 3/6 | 5/6 | plural | some plants, animals and household implements | inka – cows |
| uru- | 11 | 6 | 6 | singular | mixture, body parts | urugo – home |
| aka- | 12 | 7 | 7 | singular | diminutive forms of other nouns | akantu – little thing |
| utu- | 13 | 7 | 7 | plural | diminutive forms of other nouns | utuntu – little things |
| ubu- | 14 | 8 | 8 | n/a | abstract nouns, qualities or states | ubuntu – generosity |
| uku- | 15 | 9 | 9 | n/a | actions, verbal nouns and gerunds | ukuntu – means |
| aha- | 16 | 10 | 10 | n/a | places, locations | ahantu – place |

### Verbs

All Kinyarwanda verb infinitives begin with ku- (morphed into k(w)- before vowels, and into gu- before stems beginning with a voiceless consonant due to Dahl's Law). To conjugate, the infinitive prefix is removed and replaced with a prefix agreeing with the subject. Then a tense marker can be inserted.
| | Singular | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural | Plural |
| | Corresp. Noun Class | before consonants | before vowels | Corresp. Noun Class | before consonants | before vowels |
| 1st person | | n-/m- | n- | | tu-/du- | tw- |
| 2nd person | | u- | w- | | mu- | mw- |
| I | 1 | a- | y- | 2 | ba- | b- |
| II | 3 | u- | w- | 4 | i- | y- |
| III | 5 | ri- | ry- | 6 | a- | y- |
| IV | 7 | ki- | cy- | 8 | bi- | by- |
| V | 9 | i- | y- | 10 | zi- | z- |
| VI | 11 | ru- | rw- | 10 | zi- | z- |
| VII | 12 | ka- | k- | 13 | tu- | tw- |
| VIII | 14 | bu- | bw- | 16 | bu- | bw- |
| IX | 15 | ku- | k(w)- | 16 | a- | y- |
| X | 16 | ha- | h- | 16 | ha- | h- |
The class I prefixes y-/a- and ba- correspond to the third person for persons. The personal prefix n- becomes m- before a labial sound (p, b, f, v), while personal prefix tu- becomes du- under Dahl's Law.
| | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural |
| | Full pronoun | Subject prefix | Full pronoun | Subject prefix |
| 1st person | njye(we) | n-/m- | mwe(bwe) | tu-/du- |
| 2nd person | wowe | u-/w- | twe(bwe) | mu-/mw- |
| 3rd person | we | a-/y- | bo | ba- |
Every regular verb has three stems: the imperfective (ending in the morpheme -a), the perfective (ending in the morpheme -:ye, which may trigger a variety of morphophonological changes in the preceding segment) and the subjunctive (ending in the morpheme -e).
According to Botne (1983), a verb may belong to any of eight Aktionsart categories, which may be broadly grouped into stative and dynamic categories. In the immediate tense, dynamic verbs take the imperfective stem while stative verbs take the perfective stem, while both use the imperfective stem in the habitual or gnomic tense.
Simple tense/mood markers include the following:
* With the present stem:
** Present ('I do'): - (no infix)
** Present Progressive ('I am doing'): -ra- (assimilates to -da- when preceded by n)
** Habitual Past ('I used to do/was doing'): -a- plus -ga suffixed to the verb
** Future ('I will do'): -za-
* With the past stem:
** Polite Imperative ('Let me do'; 'please do'): - (no infix)
** Perfect ('I have done/I did'): -a-
** Near Past ('I just did'): -ra- (assimilates to -da- when preceded by n)
** Preterite ('I did'): -ara-
** Subjunctive ('that I do/did'): -za-
Object affixes corresponding to the noun classes of an object may be placed after the tense marker and before the verb stem:
| | Singular | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural | Plural |
| | Corresp. Noun Class | before consonants | before vowels | Corresp. Noun Class | before consonants | before vowels |
| 1st person | | -n-/-m- | -ny- | | -tu-/-du- | -tw- |
| 2nd person | | -ku-/-gu- | -kw- | | -ba- | -b- |
| I | 1 | -mu- | -mw- | 2 | -ba- | -b- |
| II | 3 | -wu- | -w- | 4 | -yi- | -y- |
| III | 5 | -ri- | -ry- | 6 | -ya- | -y- |
| IV | 7 | -ki- | -cy- | 8 | -bi- | -by- |
| V | 9 | -yi- | -y- | 16 | -zi- | -z- |
| VI | 11 | -ru- | -rw- | 10 | -zi- | -z- |
| VII | 12 | -ka-/-ga- | -k- | 13 | -tu-/-du- | -tw- |
| VIII | 14 | -bu- | -bw- | 16 | -ya- | -y- |
| IX | 15 | -ku-/-gu- | -kw- | 16 | -ya- | -y- |
| X | 16 | -ha- | -h- | 16 | -ha- | -h- |
The personal object affixes are as follows:
| | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural |
| | Full pronoun | Object affix | Full pronoun | Object affix |
| 1st person | njye(we) | -n-/-m- (cons.) -ny- (vowel) | mwebwe | tu-/du- (cons.) -tw- (vowel) |
| 2nd person | wowe | -ku-/-gu- (cons.) -kw- (vowel) | twe(bwe) | -ba- (cons.) -b- (vowel) |
| 3rd person | we | -mu- (cons.) -mw- (vowel) | bo | -ba- (cons.) -b- (vowel) |

### Causatives

Kinyarwanda employs the use of periphrastic causatives, in addition to morphological causatives.
The periphrastic causatives use the verbs -teer- and -tum-, which mean cause. With -teer-, the original subject becomes the object of the main clause, leaving the original verb in the infinitive (just like in English):
Ábáana
children
b-a-gii-ye.
they-PST-go-ASP
Ábáana b-a-gii-ye.
children they-PST-go-ASP
"The children left."
Umugabo
man
y-a-tee-ye
he-PST-cause-ASP
ábáana
children
ku-geend-a.
INF-go-ASP
Umugabo y-a-tee-ye ábáana ku-geend-a.
man he-PST-cause-ASP children INF-go-ASP
"The man caused the children to go.
In this construction, the original S can be deleted.
Abantu
people
ba-rá-bon-a.
they-PRES-see-ASP
Abantu ba-rá-bon-a.
people they-PRES-see-ASP
"People see"
Ku-geenda
INF-go
gu-teer-a
it-cause-ASP
(abaantu)
(people)
ku-bona.
INF-see
Ku-geenda gu-teer-a (abaantu) ku-bona.
INF-go it-cause-ASP (people) INF-see
"To travel causes to see."
With -túm-, the original S remains in the embedded clause and the original verb is still marked for person and tense:
N-a-andits-e
I-PST-write-ASP
amábárúwa
letters
meênshi.
many
N-a-andits-e amábárúwa meênshi.
I-PST-write-ASP letters many
"I wrote many letters."
Umukoôbwa
girl
y-a-tum-ye
she-PST-cause-ASP
n-á-andik-a
I-PST-write-ASP
amábárúwa
letters
meênshi.
many
Umukoôbwa y-a-tum-ye n-á-andik-a amábárúwa meênshi.
girl she-PST-cause-ASP I-PST-write-ASP letters many
"The girl caused me to write many letters."
Derivational causatives use the instrumental marker -iish-. The construction is the same, but it is instrumental when the subject is inanimate and it is causative when the subject is animate:
Umugabo
man
a-ra-andik-iish-a
he-PRES-write-CAUS-ASP
umugabo
man
íbárúwa.
letter
Umugabo a-ra-andik-iish-a umugabo íbárúwa.
man he-PRES-write-CAUS-ASP man letter
"The man is making the man write a letter."
Umugabo
man
a-ra-andik-iish-a
he-PRES-write-INSTR-ASP
íkárámu
pen
íbárúwa.
letter
Umugabo a-ra-andik-iish-a íkárámu íbárúwa.
man he-PRES-write-INSTR-ASP pen letter
"The man is writing a letter with the pen."
This morpheme can be applied to intransitives (3) or transitives (4):
Ábáana
children
ba-rá-ryáam-ye.
they-PRES-sleep-ASP
Ábáana ba-rá-ryáam-ye.
children they-PRES-sleep-ASP
"The children are sleeping."
Umugóre
woman
a-ryaam-iish-ije
she-sleep-CAUS-ASP
ábáana
children
Umugóre a-ryaam-iish-ije ábáana
woman she-sleep-CAUS-ASP children
"The woman is putting the children to sleep."
Ábáana
children
ba-ra-som-a
they-PRES-read-ASP
ibitabo.
books
Ábáana ba-ra-som-a ibitabo.
children they-PRES-read-ASP books
"The children are reading the books."
Umugabo
man
a-ra-som-eesh-a
he-PRES-read-CAUS-ASP
ábáana
children
ibitabo.
books
Umugabo a-ra-som-eesh-a ábáana ibitabo.
man he-PRES-read-CAUS-ASP children books
"The man is making the children read the books."
However, there can only be one animate direct object. If a sentence has two, one or both is deleted and understood from context.
The suffix -iish- implies an indirect causation (similar to English have in "I had him write a paper), while other causatives imply a direct causation (similar to English make in "I made him write a paper").
One of these more direct causation devices is the deletion of what is called a "neutral" morpheme -ik-, which indicates state or potentiality. Stems with the -ik- removed can take -iish, but the causation is less direct:
    -mének-"be broken"-mén-"break"-méneesh-"have (something) broken" -sáduk-"be cut"-sátur-"cut"-sátuz-"have (something) cut"
Another direct causation maker is -y- which is used for some verbs:
Ámáazi
water
a-rá-shyúuh-a.
it-PRES-warm-ASP
Ámáazi a-rá-shyúuh-a.
water it-PRES-warm-ASP
"The water is being warmed."
Umugóre
woman
a-rá-shyúush-y-a
she-PRES-warm-CAUS-ASP
ámáazi.
water
Umugóre a-rá-shyúush-y-a ámáazi.
woman she-PRES-warm-CAUS-ASP water
"The woman is warming the water."
Umugabo
man
a-rá-shyúuh-iish-a
he-PRES-warm-CAUS-ASP
umugóre
woman
ámáazi
water
Umugabo a-rá-shyúuh-iish-a umugóre ámáazi
man he-PRES-warm-CAUS-ASP woman water
"The man is having the woman warm the water.