# Concordia Station

Concordia Research Station, which opened in 2005, is a French–Italian research facility managed by l'Institut polaire français Paul-Émile Victor and Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide, that was built 3,233 m (10,607 ft) above sea level on a geographical formation known as dôme C, on the Antarctic Plateau, Antarctica. It is located 1,100 km (680 mi) inland from the French research station at Dumont D'Urville, 1,100 km (680 mi) inland from Australia's Casey Station and 1,200 km (750 mi) inland from the Italian Zucchelli Station at Terra Nova Bay. Russia's Vostok Station is 560 km (350 mi) away. The Geographic South Pole is 1,670 km (1,040 mi) away. The facility is also located within Australia's claim on Antarctica, the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Concordia Station is the third permanent, all-year research station on the Antarctic Plateau besides Vostok Station and the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station (U.S.) at the Geographic South Pole. It is jointly operated by scientists from France and Italy and regularly hosts ESA scientists.
The station is also known as Concordia camp, and previously as Dome Charlie.

## History

The first research work at dôme C began during 1978. In 1982 the French first had the idea to build a permanent base at the dôme.
In 1992, France built a new station on the Antarctic Plateau. The program was later joined by Italy in 1993.
In 1995, Pr. Jean Vernin from University of Nice Sophia-Antipolis and Pr. Giorgio Dall'Oglio from University of Rome performed the first scientific experience towards a site qualification at dôme C.
In 1996, a French-Italian team established a summer camp at dôme C. The two main objectives of the camp were the provision of logistical support for the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) and the construction of a permanent research station.
The new all-year facility, Concordia Station, became operational in 2005. The first winterover began with a staff of 13 (eleven French and 2 Italians) in February 2005.

### Winterovers

While the station has been in use for summer campaigns since December 1997, the first winterover (February to October) was only made in 2005. During this period, the station is inaccessible, requiring total autonomy.

#### First winter-over (DC01 – 2005)

The first winter began in mid-February 2005, with thirteen wintering (eleven French people and two Italians):
France
* Michel Munoz: station leader, plumber
* Christophe Mozer: powerhouse chief
* Pascal Bordais: radio, electronics, computers
* Claire Le Calvez: technical chief
* Michel Galland: electrician
* Jean-Louis Duraffourg: chef
* Abdelkarim Agabi (Karim Agabi): astronomer
* Stéphane Beausire: boilermaker, welder
* Jean Elegoet: vehicle mechanic
* Jean-François Jurvilliers: multipurpose technician
* Guillaume Dargaud: climatologist (under contract with the Italian National Antarctic Research Program – PNRA)
Italy
* Roberto Dicasilati: physician
* Emanuele Salvietti: glaciologist
In September 2005 the highest temperature was −48 °C, with an average in August of −60.2 °C and a record of −78.6 °C on 1 September. At these temperatures, trips outside had to be performed with the utmost care. Those going outside travelled at least in pairs and were equipped with a radio, spare batteries and a full fleece suit, with only the eyes at times visible. Italian Glaciologist Emanuele Salvietti had to take snow samples every day one kilometre from the base. As he had to walk (because no vehicle operates at these temperatures), he built a full face mask, with only a pipe to breathe. The slightest mistake would lead to certain injury, as astronomer Agabi Karim explained: "Burns on the cheeks and eyelashes glued to the lens of the telescope," after exposure to the freezing cold.

#### Second winter-over (DC02 – 2006)

From February to November 2006. 10: 6 French, 4 Italian.
France
* Minh Ly Pham Minh: station leader, physician
* Eric Aristidi: astronomer
* Loïc Le Bechec: chef
* Shaun Deshommes: technical chief
* José Dos Santos: electrician
* Miguel Ravoux: plumber
Italy
* Michele Impara: computers
* Lucia Agnoletto: seismologist
* Omar Cerri: glaciologist
* Elyseo D'Eramo: mechanic
The record temperature for this winter was measured at −80 °C on 5 September 2006 at 2:37 ET was renewed several times.

#### Third winter-over (DC03 – 2007)

From February to November 2007. 14: 8 French, 6 Italian.
France
* François Jeanneaux: engineer
* Jean-Pierre Pillisio: plumber
* Carlos Marsal: chef
* Yvan Levy: technical chief
* Nicolas Le Parc: electrician
* Christophe Choley: mechanic
* Djamel Mékarnia: astronomer
* Benedict Cuisset: technical
Italy
* Maurizio Busetto: climatologist
* Federico Miliacca: computers and telecommunications
* Runa Briguglio: astronomer
* Giuseppe Soriani: surgeon
* Pietro di Felice: station leader, engineer
* Alessandro Iacomino: glaciologist
The average temperature was −65 °C and the minimum temperature recorded was −81.9 °C reached on 5 September.

#### Fourth winter-over (DC04 – 2008)

From 31 January 2008 to 8 November 2008. 13: 7 French, 6 Italian.
France
* Erick Bondoux: astronomer
* Laurent Bonnardot: biomedical
* Zalpha Challita: astronomer
* Sébastien Denamur: mechanic
* Laurent Fromont: electrician
* Patrick LeRoy: technical chief
* Jean-François Vanacker: station leader, radio
Italy
* Giorgio Deidda: chef
* Daniele Frosini: glaciologist
* Fabrizio Martinet: plumber
* Roberto Rainis: doctor
* Lucia Sabbatini: astrophysicist
* Riccardo Schioppo: climatologist

#### Fifth winter-over (DC05 – 2009)

From February 2009 to November 2009. 12: 8 French, 3 Italian, 1 British.
Italy
* Massimiliano Faiella: technical chief
* Domenico Fasano: chef
* Laura Genoni: glaciologist
France
* William Frinot: plumber
* Caroline Jullian: atmospheric chemistry
* Alexander Leluc: mechanic
* Eric Lotz: station leader, physician
* Denis Petermann: astronomer
* Cyprien Pouzenc: astronomer
* Eric Tragin: electrician
* Jonathan Zaccaria: radio, computer, science support
United Kingdom
* Alex Salam: ESA biomedical research

#### Sixth winter-over (DC06 – 2010)

13: 6 French, 6 Italian, 1 Czech.
France
* Jean-François Vanacker: station leader
* Karim Agabi: astronomer
* Arthur Le Forestier: technical chief
* Christophe Rouy: mechanic
* Jean-Marie Moysan: plumber
* Sylvain Lafont: glaciologist
Czech Republic
* Ales Rybka: ESA biomedical research
Italy
* Alessandro Bambini: electrician
* Boris Padovan: computer, telecommunications
* Daniele Karlicek: glaciologist
* Giorgio Deidda: chef
* Lorenzo Moggio: atmospheric chemistry
* Rosa Forgittoni: doctor

#### Seventh winter-over (DC07 – 2011)

14 people: 7 French, 6 Italian, 1 British.
Italy
* Andrea Cesana: station leader, doctor
* Alessandro Giusto: electrician
* Paolo Perfetti: computer, telecommunications
* Domenico Romano: astronomer, glaciologist
* Andrea Ballarini: chef
* Angelo Galeandro: meteorologist
United Kingdom
* Eoin MacDonald: ESA biomedical research
France
* Djamel Mekarnia: astronomer
* Eric Aristidi: astronomer
* Sergeant Frederic: technical chief
* David Colin: mechanic
* Vivien Koutcheroff: plumber
* Ilann Bourgeois: atmospheric chemistry, glaciologist
* Pascal Robert: technician seismology, magnetism

#### Eighth winter-over (DC08 – 2012)

13 people: 7 French, 4 Italian, 1 Russian, 1 British.
France
* Erick Bondoux: station leader, electronic technician for science
* Barbara Grolla: nurse anesthetist
* Guillaume Bouchez: astronomer
* Stephane Calvo: technical chief
* Bruno Limouzy: mecanician
* Gérard Guérin: plumber
* Sebastien Aubin: glaciologist, atmospheric chemistry
United Kingdom
* Alexander Kumar: Station physician and ESA biomedical research MD
Italy
* Alessandro Bambini: electrotechnician
* Roberto D'Amato: informatician, telecommunications
* Mattia Bonazza: glaciologist, atmospheric chemistry
* Giorgio Deidda: chef
Russia
* Igor Petenko: atmospheric science and climate

#### Ninth winter-over (DC09 – 2013)

15 people: 9 French, 5 Italian, 1 Greek.
France
* Anne-Marie Courant: station leader, physician
* Helene Faradji: astronomer
* Christophe Leroy Dos Santos: astronomer
* Yann Reinert: astronomer
* Jean Gabriel Coll: electrician
* Yannick Marin: technical chief
* Simon Reuze: mechanic
* Olivier Delanoë: Plumber
* Albane Barbero: glaciologist, atmospheric chemistry, meteorological maintenance
Greece
* Evangelos Kaimakamis: ESA biomedical research
Italy
* Bruno Epifania: computer, telecommunications
* Elio Padoan: glaciologist, atmospheric chemistry
* Luigi Vailati: chef
* Antonio Litterio: electronic technician for science
* Simonetta Montaguti: atmospheric science and climate

#### Tenth winter-over (DC10 – 2014)

13 people: 6 French, 5 Italian, 1 Russian, 1 Greek.
France
* Bruno Limouzy: Electrical motors
* Pierre Pejoine: Mechanic
* Julien Ribet: Electrotechnician
* Olivier Haye: Technical Chief, plumbing and heating
* Cecile Lenormant: Chemist
* Xavier Joffrin: Astronomy
Italy
* Giorgio Deidda: Chef
* Tindari Ceraolo: Physician
* Paride Legovini: Physicist, Electronic technician for science
* Tommaso Nicosia: Computer, telecommunications
* Daniele Tavagnacco: Astrophysicist
Greece
* Adrianos Golemis: ESA biomedical research,
Russia
* Igor Petenko: Atmospheric science and climate
During the 2014 Antarctic winter Concordia was an active amateur radio station: Paride Legovini operated from there on a weekly basis with call sign IA/IZ3SUS. The HF radio equipment consists in a Rohde & Schwarz XK2100L transceiver with a 150W RF output and a delta loop antenna located a few hundreds of meters away from the station.
The analemma (path that the sun follows in the sky if photographed at precisely the same time every week through the course of a year) was imaged for the first time ever in Antarctica by Adrianos Golemis during the 10th winterover mission at Concordia Station (2013–2014). The resulting composite exposure image was selected as NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) on 23 September 2015.

#### Eleventh winter-over (DC11 – 2015)

From February 2015 to November 2015. 13 people: 6 French, 5 Italian, 1 British, 1 Swiss.
Italy
* Mario Salza: Station Leader, Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
* Antonietta Roveran: Physician
* Luca Ficara: Chef
* Giampietro Casasanta: Glaciology and Atmospheric Remote Sensing
* Lorenzo Moggio: Atmospheric physics
France
* Yannick Marin: Technical Manager and Electrical motors
* Roxanne Jacob: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Guillaume Poirot: Mechanic
* Benoit Laurent: Electronics for Science
* Benoit Joncheray: Plumbing and Heating Engineering Technician
* Rémi Puaud: Electrical Engineering Technician
Switzerland
* Markus Wildi: Astrophysics
United Kingdom
* Beth Healey: ESA Biomedical Research

#### Twelfth winter-over (DC12 – 2016)

Began 10 February 2016. 12: 5 Italian, 6 French, 1 Belgian.
Italy
* Vitale Stanzione: Station Leader, Glaciology
* Elvio Lazzarini: Medical Doctor
* Alessandro Fausto: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
* Luciano Milano: Electronics for Science
* Simonetta Montaguti: Atmospheric Science and Climate
France
* Bertrand Bonnefoy: Chef
* Henri van den Hove: Plumbing and Heating Engineering Technician
* Olivier Leloir: Technical Chief
* Gaetan Quere: Mechanic
* Nicole Hueber: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
the Netherlands
* Floris van den Berg: ESA Biomedical Research MD
Belgium
* Georges Karakasidis: Electrician

#### Thirteenth winter-over (DC13 – 2017)

Began 9 February 2017. 13: 5 French, 7 Italian, 1 Belgian Canadian.
Italy
* Simone Chicarella: Electronics for Science, Station Leader
* Andrea Tosti: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
* Aldo Clemenza: Medical Doctor
* Simone Marcolin: Chef
* Laura Caiazzo: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Yuri de Prà: Astronomy
* Alfonso Ferrone: Atmospheric Science and Climate
France
* Didier L'Hôte: Technical Chief
* Sébastien Jullien-Palletier: Electrician
* Alexis Robin: Plumbing and Heating Engineering Technician
* Pol Monfort: Mechanic
* Paul Serre: Chemistry
Belgium Canada
* Carole Dangoisse: ESA Biomedical Research MD

#### Fourteenth winter-over (DC14 – 2018)

Began 6 February 2018. 13: 5 French, 7 Italian, 1 Austrian.
Italy
* Moreno Baricevic: Electronics for Science
* Marco Buttu: Astronomy
* Filippo Cali' Quaglia: Atmospheric Science and Climate
* Mario Giorgioni: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
* Alberto Razeto: Medical Doctor
* Marco Smerilli: Chef
France
* Remi Bras: Electrician
* Coline Bouchayeur: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Andre Bourre: Technical Chief
* Florentin Camus: Plumbing and Heating Engineering Technician
* Jacques Rattel: Mechanic
France Italy
* Cyprien Verseux: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry, Station Leader
Austria
* Carmen Possnig: ESA Biomedical Research MD

#### Fifteenth winter-over (DC15 – 2019)

Began 13 February 2019. 13: 5 French, 6 Italian, 1 Danish, 1 Australian.
Denmark
* Nadja Albertsen: ESA Biomedical Research MD
France
* Damien Beloin: Mechanic
* Thibault Gillet: Electrician
* Bertrand Laine: Technical Chief
* Julien Le Goff: Plumbing and Heating Engineering Technician
* Julien Moyé: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
Italy
* Ivan Bruni: Astronomy
* Massimiliano Catricalà: Electronics for Science, Station Leader
* Giuditta Celli: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Gianluca Ghiselli: Medical Doctor
* Daniele Giambruno: Chef
* Alessandro Mancini: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
Australia Italy
* Meganne Louise Christian: Atmospheric Science and Climate

#### Sixteenth winter-over (DC16 – 2020)

Began on 7 February 2020. 12: 7 French, 4 Italian, 1 Dutch.
France
* Camille Bréant: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Elisa Calmon: Chef
* Sylvain Guesnier: Chief of the power plant
* Vivien Koutcheroff: Plumbing and Technical Chief
* Wenceslas Marie Sainte: Electronics for Science
* Inès Ollivier: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Bastien Prat: Electrician
Italy
* Andrea Ceinini: Mechanic
* Loredana Faraldi: Medical Doctor
* Luca Ianniello: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
* Alberto Salvati: Atmospheric Science and Climate, Station Leader
Netherlands
* Stijn Thoolen: ESA Biomedical Research MD

#### Seventeenth winter-over (DC17 – 2021)

Began 31 January 2021. 12: 5 French, 6 Italian, 1 British.
France
* Cédric Albert: Electrician
* Dennis Appere: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Charles Delgrange: Mechanic
* Quentin Perret: Boilermaker, Welder and Multipurpose Technician
* Jean-François Roques: Technical Chief
Italy
* Fabio Borgognoni: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
* Marco Buttu: Electronics for Science
* Rodolfo Canestrari: Atmospheric Science and Climate, Station Leader
* Giuseppina Canestrelli: Medical Doctor
* Simone Marcolin: Chef
* David Tosolini: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
United Kingdom
* Nicholas Smith: ESA Biomedical Research MD

#### Eighteenth winter-over (DC18 – 2022)

Began 7 February 2022. 13: 6 French, 6 Italian, 1 Swedish.
Italy
* Massimiliano Catricalà: Station Leader, Electronics for Science
* Angelo Galeandro: Atmospheric Science and Climate
* Thomas Gasparetto: Astronomy
* Alessia Nicosia: Glaciology
* Thomas Antonio Massimo Pagano: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
* Marco Smerilli: Chef
France
* Fabien Farge: Medical Doctor
* Nicolas Girard: Electrician
* Stanislas Grabowski: Boilermaker, Welder and Multipurpose Technician
* Frederic Sergent: Technical Chief
* Pierre Supiot: Mechanic
* Julien Witwicky: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
Sweden
* Hannes Hagson: ESA Biomedical Research MD

#### Nineteenth winter-over (DC19 – 2023)

Began 7 February 2023. 12: 6 French, 5 Italian, 1 German.
France
* Claude Blanc: Mechanic
* Rudy Bunel: Technical Chief
* Stéphane Fraize: Medical Doctor
* Vincent Morel: Electrotechnician
* Damien Pessieau: Plumbing and Heating Engineering Technician
* Damien Till: Glaciology and Atmospheric Chemistry
Italy
* Davide Carlucci: Station Leader, Electronics for Science
* Jacopo Lucini Paioni: Chef
* Domenico Mura: Astronomy
* Luca Rago: Glaciology
* Andrea Traverso: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
Germany
* Sascha Freigang: ESA Biomedical Research MD

#### Twentieth winter-over (DC20 – 2024)

Began 31 January 2024. 13: 7 French, 5 Italian, 1 Swiss.
Italy
* Marco Buttu: Electronic of Science
* Gabriele Carugati: Station Leader, Glaciologist, Atmosphere Chemistry
* Sergio Cosma: Chef
* Mario Lecca: Atmospheric Science and Climate
* Andrea Traverso: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
France
* Vincent Deloupy: Astronomer
* Fanny Larcher: Medical Doctor
* Julien Laurancy: Electrotechnician
* Quentin Lecoutey: Mechanic and Vehicles
* Manon Mastin: Glaciologist and Atmospheric Chemist
* Giovani Rosario: Plumbing and Heating Engineering
* Frederic Sergent: Technical Chief, Electric Central Mechanic
Swiss
* Jessica Studer: ESA Biomedical Research MD

#### Twenty-first winter-over (DC21 – 2025)

From February. 13: 6 French, 6 Italian, 1 British.
France
* Clément Arrat: Atmosphere Chemistry
* Julien Castel: Mechanic
* Pierre Chene: Technical Chief, Electric Central Mechanic
* Valentin Jarnole: Plumber
* Julien Lacrampe: Electrotechnician
* Yves-Marie Lahaie: Medical Doctor
Italy
* Matteo Beltrame: Astronomer
* Davide Carlucci: Electronic of Science
* Erik Geletti: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
* Simona Grimaldi: Station Leader, Glaciologist
* Thomas Pagano: Physics of the Atmosphere
* Laerte Picano: Chef
United Kingdom
* Nina Purvis: ESA Biomedical Research MD

### Beyond Epica-Oldest Ice

During February 2022 initial ice core extraction of the Beyond Epica-Oldest Ice research activity was completed, located 34 km from the station.

## Transportation

Most of the cargo is moved to Dome C by traverse (called raid) from Dumont d'Urville Station, covering 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) in 7 to 12 days depending on weather conditions. Station personnel and light cargo arrive by air, landing on a Skiway, using the Twin Otters or Basler BT-67 flying from DDU or Zucchelli Station at 1,200 kilometres (750 mi).

## Environment

Dome C is situated on top of the Antarctic Plateau. No animals or plants live at a distance of more than a few tens of kilometers from the Southern Ocean. However, south polar skuas have been spotted overflying the station, 1,200 km away from their nearest food sources. It is believed that these birds have learned to cross the continent instead of circumnavigating it.

## Human biology and medicine

Concordia Station shares many stressor characteristics similar to that of long-duration deep-space missions, in particular extreme isolation and confinement, and therefore serves as a useful analogue platform for research relevant to space medicine. During the winter, the crew are isolated from the outside world, having no transportation and limited communication for 9 months and live a prolonged period in complete darkness, at an altitude almost equivalent to 4000m at the equator. This creates physiological and psychological strains on the crew. Concordia station is particularly useful for the study of chronic hypobaric hypoxia, stress secondary to confinement and isolation, circadian rhythm and sleep disruption, individual and group psychology, telemedicine, and astrobiology. Concordia station has been proposed as one of the real-life Earth-based analogues for long-duration deep-space missions.

## Glaciology

In the 1970s, Dome C was the site of ice core drilling by field teams of several nations. In the 1990s, Dome C was chosen for deep ice core drilling by the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA). Drilling at Dome C began in 1996 and was completed on 21 December 2004, reaching a drilling depth of 3270.2 m, 5 m above bedrock. The age of the oldest recovered ice is estimated to be ca. 900,000 years.

## Astronomy

Concordia Station has been identified as a suitable location for extremely accurate astronomical observations. The transparency of the Antarctic atmosphere permits the observation of stars even when the sun is at an elevation angle of 38°. Other advantages include the very low infrared sky emission, the high percentage of cloud-free time and the low aerosol and dust content of the atmosphere.
The median seeing measured with a DIMM Differential Image Motion Monitor placed on top of an 8.5 m high tower is 1.3 ± 0.8 arcseconds. This is significantly worse than most major observatory sites, but similar to other observatories in Antarctica. However, Lawrence et al. considered other features of the site and concluded that "Dome C is the best ground-based site to develop a new astronomical observatory", a conclusion made before whole-atmospheric seeing measurements had been made at Dome C.
Thanks to the Single Star Scidar SSS, Vernin, Chadid and Aristidi et al. and Giordano, Vernin and Chadid et al. finally demonstrated that most of the optical turbulence is concentrated within the first 30 m atmospheric level at Dome C. The rest of the atmosphere is very quiet with a seeing of about 0.3-0.4 arcseconds, and the overall seeing is somewhat around 1.0 arcseconds.
Launched in 2007, PAIX, the first robotic multi-color Antarctica Photometer gives a new insight to cope with unresolved stellar enigma and stellar oscillation challenges and offers a great opportunity to benefit from an access to the best astronomical site on Earth –Dome C–. Indeed, Chadid, Vernin, Preston et al. implement, for the first time from the ground, a new way to study the stellar oscillations, pulsations and their evolutionary properties with long uninterrupted and continuous precision observations over 150 days, and without the regular interruptions imposed by the Earth rotation. PAIX achieves astrophysical UBVRI bands time-series measurements of stellar physics fields, challenging photometry from Space.
The Antarctic Search for Transiting ExoPlanets (ASTEP) programme is composed of two telescopes: a 10 cm refractor installed in 2008, and a 40 cm telescope installed in 2010 and upgraded in 2022.

## Climate

The climate at Dome C where Concordia Station is located is frigid all year round, being one of the coldest places on Earth. It has a polar ice cap climate (Köppen EF), with maximums ranging from −24.8 °C (−12.6 °F) in December to −62 °C (−80 °F) in May, mean ranging from −30.4 °C (−22.7 °F) in December to −65.3 °C (−85.5 °F) in May and minimums ranging from −36.1 °C (−33.0 °F) in December to −68.7 °C (−91.7 °F) in May. The annual average air temperature is −54.5 °C (−66.1 °F). The station has never recorded a temperature above freezing; the warmest temperature recorded was −5.4 °C (22.3 °F) in January. Temperatures can fall below −80 °C (−112 °F) in winter, and the coldest recorded temperature was −84.6 °C (−120.3 °F) in August 2010; one of the coldest temperatures ever recorded on Earth.
Humidity is low and it is also very dry, with very little precipitation throughout the year.
Dome C does not experience the katabatic winds typical for the coastal regions of Antarctica because of its elevated location and its relative distance from the edges of the Antarctic Plateau. Typical wind speed in winter is 2.8 m/s.
Climate data for Concordia :
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | −5.4 (22.3) | −12.9 (8.8) | −11.5 (11.3) | −32.9 (−27.2) | −28.5 (−19.3) | −30.2 (−22.4) | −25.4 (−13.7) | −26.5 (−15.7) | −30.3 (−22.5) | −23.1 (−9.6) | −17.0 (1.4) | −9.4 (15.1) | −5.4 (22.3) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −24.9 (−12.8) | −33.7 (−28.7) | −48.7 (−55.7) | −58.5 (−73.3) | −62.0 (−79.6) | −58.9 (−74.0) | −58.4 (−73.1) | −57.8 (−72.0) | −54.1 (−65.4) | −44.8 (−48.6) | −32.5 (−26.5) | −24.8 (−12.6) | −46.6 (−51.9) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −31.1 (−24.0) | −40.6 (−41.1) | −54.0 (−65.2) | −61.9 (−79.4) | −65.3 (−85.5) | −62.3 (−80.1) | −62.1 (−79.8) | −61.7 (−79.1) | −59.5 (−75.1) | −52.2 (−62.0) | −39.3 (−38.7) | −30.4 (−22.7) | −51.7 (−61.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −37.5 (−35.5) | −47.7 (−53.9) | −59.4 (−74.9) | −65.4 (−85.7) | −68.7 (−91.7) | −65.8 (−86.4) | −66.0 (−86.8) | −65.8 (−86.4) | −65.2 (−85.4) | −59.8 (−75.6) | −46.2 (−51.2) | −36.1 (−33.0) | −57.0 (−70.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −49.8 (−57.6) | −60.0 (−76.0) | −72.0 (−97.6) | −78 (−108) | −79.6 (−111.3) | −82.2 (−116.0) | −82.3 (−116.1) | −84.6 (−120.3) | −81.9 (−115.4) | −74.0 (−101.2) | −61.9 (−79.4) | −45.9 (−50.6) | −84.6 (−120.3) |
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