# Geography of Ladakh

Ladakh is an administrative territory of India that has been under its control since 1947. The geographical region of Ladakh union territory is the highest altitude plateau region in India (much of it being over 3,000 m), incorporating parts of the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges and the upper Indus River and valley.

## Political geography

Historic Ladakh consists of a number of distinct areas (mainly under Indian rule), including the fairly populous main Indus valley, the more remote Zanskar (in the south) and Nubra valleys (to the north over Khardung La in the Ladakh mountain range, a high motorable pass at 5,359 metres (17,582 ft)), the almost deserted Aksai Chin (under Chinese rule) and the predominantly Shi'ite Muslim Kargil and Suru valley areas in the west (Kargil being the second most important town in Ladakh). Historically populated by the Ladakhi people, continued immigration and preferential treatment to Kashmiris by the J&K government have led to demographic changes in the Ladakh region.
The Baltistan and Skardu area, under Pakistani rule and entirely Muslim, used to be included in what is geographically referred to as Ladakh. Before partition, Baltistan was one of the districts of Ladakh. Skardo was the winter capital of Ladakh while Leh was the summer capital. People of Baltistan and Ladakh speak very similar languages closely related to Tibetan.
Naked barley, normal barley and wheat are the staple crops all over Ladakh, along with mustard (for oil), lentils and other pulses, and vegetables. The extreme limit of cultivation is at Korzok near the Tso Moriri lake, at 4560 m, said to be among the highest fields in the world.

## Mountain ranges & plateau

The mountain ranges in this region were formed over a period of 45 million years by the folding of the Indian Plate into the stationary landmass of Asia. Himalayas were formed from the base material of the Indian plate.
* Mountain ranges are (from north to south, then east to west):
** Karakoram range: two importance of ranges are Changchenmo Range and Pangong Range as below.
*** Changchenmo Range - a sub range of Karakoram Range
**** Passes
***** Karakoram Pass
***** Marsimik La
**** Hotsprings
***** Hot Springs, Chang Chenmo Valley on LAC
***** Gogra Hot Springs, Changlung Valley also in Chang Chenmo Valley on LAC.
***** Jianan Pass – a border pass in the Kugrang Valley tributary of Changchenmo is sometimes called "Hot Springs" .
*** Pangong Range, a sub range of Karakoram Range, runs from Chushul along southern shore of Panggong Tso on India-China LAC.
**** Features
***** Fingers, has Dhan Singh Thapa Post on northern bank of paganso on the slope of one of fingers.
***** Khurnak Fort on north bank of Pangong Tso
***** Harong peak
***** Mumkun peak on south bank of Pangong Tso
***** Laban peak
***** Matung Nyungtsa
***** Dage peak
***** Rechihlong
***** Bapi peak.
***** Merag peak
***** Kangju Kangri peak
**** Passes
***** Rezang La
***** Kongta La pass.
**** Lakes
***** Pangong Tso
***** Spanggur Tso
** Kailash Range (Gangdise Shan range): on the southern bank of Pangong Tso begins from Lukung, runs eastward via Thakung Heights, Helmet Top, Phursook Bay, till India-claimed-LAC at Bangong Co.
*** Features
**** Helmet Top
**** Black Top
**** Gurung Hill
**** Spanggur Gap
**** Mount Sajum
*** Passes
**** Rezang La
**** Rechin La
**** Rezang La II
**** Chang La pass, northeast of Skakjung pasture & Dumchele village
*** Rivers
**** Kigunaru River- the right bank tributary of Indus River
*** Pastures
**** Skakjung pasture in western part of Demchok sector and China-administered India-claimed Dumchele border trading village lies in this posture.
** Ladakh range
*** Panamik hot springs, near Sasoma enroute Siachen.
*** Passes
**** Yarab Tso lake in Nubra Valley.
**** Yaya Tso on "Chumathang-Chushul Road".
**** Mirpal Tso on "Chumathang-Chushul Road".
** Koyul Ridge, from Dungti-Fukche-Koyul Ridge to Demchok on right bank of Indus along Chushul-Dungti-Fukche-Demchok highway (CDFD road).
** Zanskar range
** List of mountain peaks of Ladakh
* Plateaus are (north to south):
** Aksai Chin, see List of locations in Aksai Chin.
*** Depsang plains (Karakoram Plains), north of Karakoram range.
**** Daulat Beg Oldie
**** Depsang Bulge
*** Lingzi Thang Plains, southeast of Depsang plains & north of Kongka La.
**** Tso Tang
*** Soda Plains, east of Depsang plains & north of Lingzi Thang Plains.
** Changthang plateau
*** Rong Valley
**** Chumathang hot springs on "Upshi-Nyoma Road".
*** Rupshu plateau - subsection of Changthang plateau
**** Puga Valley
***** Puga hot springs east of Tso Kar lake on ""Meroo-Tso Kar-Mahe road"".
**** Salt Valley and it's lakes
***** Tso Kar
***** Startsapuk Tso,
***** Kyagar Tso,
***** Ryul lake.

### Ladakh range

The Ladakh Range has no major peaks; its average height is a little less than 6000 metres, and few of its passes are less than 5000 m. Within Ladakh it forms the northern boundary wall of the Indus valley, though when the river enters present-day Indian-controlled Ladakh at Demchok, some 250 km south-east of Leh, it is actually flowing along the foot of the northern flank of these granite mountains, which it crosses by a great gorge close to its confluence with the Hanle River.
The Pangong Range runs parallel to the Ladakh range for some 100 km northwest from Chushul, and extends to the south along the southern shore of the Panggong Lake. It is divided from the main Ladakh range by the Tangtse River. Its highest range is 6700 m, and the northern slopes are heavily glaciated.
A third branch called the Kailash Range issues southeast of the Pangong Range and continues till Mount Kailas in Ngari (in Tibet). It forms the eastern watershed of the Indus River south of Mount Sajum.

### Zanskar range

The Zanskar Range consists of layers of sediment from the ocean floor, and the Ladakh Range of granite was born of the immense heat generated by the friction between the two plates. In Ladakh, the suture zone between the continental masses runs a little to the south of the Indus Valley. The drift continues and is the cause of the frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. Crossing the Himalayas by the dip of the Zoji-la, the crest-line of the range remains at a relatively modest level, the highest peaks near the pass being little more than 5000–5500 m above sea level. South-east of Zoji-la the scale increases, reaching a climax in the mighty massif of Nun-Kun, with two summits over 7000 m.

## Rivers valleys

The enormous mass of the Himalayas creates a rain shadow, denying entry to the moisture-laden clouds of the Indian monsoon. Ladakh is thus a high altitude desert. The main source of water is the winter snowfall on the mountains. The regions on the north flank of the Himalayas—Dras, the Suru valley and Zanskar—experience heavy snowfall and remain virtually cut off from the rest of the country for several months in the year. Summers are short, although long enough to grow crops. The proportion of oxygen is less than in many other places at a comparable altitude because of lack of vegetation. There is little moisture to temper the effects of rarefied air. Suru and Zanskar valleys form a great trough at the foot of the northern, heavily glaciated flank of the Himalayas, while opposite rise the mountains of the Zanskar range.
* Karakash River: originates in China-held and India-claimed area of Depsang Plains of Aksai Chin. Flows entirely in China-held area.
* Indus River: All of India-held Ladakh lies in the basin of Indus River. Indus River is the backbone of Ladakh. All the major places historically and currently such as Shey, Leh, Basgo, and Tingmosgang are situated close to the river. Many places along the course have witnessed the Sino-Indian border dispute. Major tributes of Indus are as follows (from east to west):
** Charding Nullah: in Demchok sector, runs from Charding La in south to its confluence with Indus near Demchok village at the base of pyramid shaped Demchok Karpo (also "Demchok Lhari Karpo") peak in Demchok sector) in north. Demchok Hot Spring is near the confluence. Demchok is reachable via 3 routes: Chushul-Dungti-Fukche-Demchok National Highway (CDFD road) through the Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary along the southern bank of the Indus river, Chismule-Koyul-Umling La-Demchok Road (CKUD Road) 86 km long world's highest motorable road (a title earlier accorded to Khardung La at 17,600 ft) from Chismule in Koyul Lungpa river valley to Demchok via the Umling La pass (world's highest motorable pass at 19,300 ft (5,900 m)) connecting Demchok to Koyul & Hanle, Hanle-Fukche-Koyul-Demchok Road (HFKD Road) via Hanle (also see IAO - Indian Astronomical Observatory) & Fukche ALG airstrip.
** Chibra Stream: in Demchok sector, flows south to north to confluence with Indus River near Lagankhel on south bank.
** Koyul Lungpa River: runs from Chang La in south to northwest past Koyul to its confluence with Indus near Fukche ALG on south bank.
** Chushul Eastern Stream: flows west to east from Chushul heights to confluence with Indus River at Loma village near Hanle on west bank.
** Hanle River: originates near the Imis La pass (5,290m or 17,355 ft high saddle, south of Ukdungle Indian Military base, Zarsar & Tradole peak) on the India-Tibet border and joins the Indus river near Nowi and Loma north of Hanle River close to the town of Nyoma.
** Kharnak River: from Pang & Kharnak to Sangtha & Kharna, northeastern flank of Zanskar range.
** Shyok River: It originates near Karakoram Pass north of Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO). It then collects 5 important tributaries from DBO to its confluence with Changchenmo, each of which originates from ridges & peaks of Karakoram range in the China-held disputed Aksai Chin area along the LAC and confluence with Shyok in the India-held area. From north to south, first tributary is Chip Chap River (inverted C-shaped route from east of Tianwendian in Aksai Chin to DBO, Chapo, Gapshan camp, Saser La, ancient Sultan Chusku caravan camp & Colonel Chewang Rinchen Bridge on DSDBO Road), second tributary of Shyok is Burtsa Nala (its tributaries are Depsang Nala with confluence at Burtsa Patrol Base, Raki Nala with confluence at India-held Y-junction, Jeong Nala with confluence at Burtsa Yogma, Murgo Nala or Murgo Chu with confluence at Murgo, itself confluences with Shyok River at Sultan Chusku camp & Colonel Chewang Rinchen Bridge or CCR Bridge), third tributary of Shyok is Jeong Nala (also called Jiwan Nala or Nacho Chu & Xidagou, itself a tributary of Burtsa Nala), fourth tributary of Shyok is Galwan River, and the fifth tributary of Shyok is Chang Chenmo River (its tributary Kugrang River flows within India-held area and confluences at India-held Hot Springs or Kyam & Kayam, and Changlung River tributary of Kugrang River flows within China-held Indian-claim area and confluences at India-held Gogra pasture). Further downstream, the Shyok River confluences with Chushul Stream at Shyok village, then with Nubra River near Diskit, and finally falls into the Indus River in Chorbat Valley in Pakistan held area. At Saser La (on Sasoma–Saser La Road), Shyok River's flow splits into a weaker NW-SE flowing stream which flows parallel to and north of the main flow of Shyok & Murgo Ridge, this weaker stream from Saser La to Murgo is called the Murgo Nala. Shyok River and Murgo Nala flowing NW-SE parallel to each other on the west side of "DSDBO Road" meet the N-S flowing Burtsa Nala at Murgo & "CCR Bridge" respectively along the DSDBO Road. Flow along the "DSDBO Road", downstream of "CCR Bridge" is called the Shyok River, its northern upstream flow from India's Burtsa Patrol Base is called the Burtsa Nala and its N-S flowing tributary above Burtsa Patrol Base is called Depsang Nala. The Burtsa Nala originates in and flows E-W within the China-held India-claimed D-shaped Depsang Bulge (Burtsa Bulge) collecting several small streams within the bulge (the entire Depsang Bulge lies immediate east of "DSDBO Road" and within the Depsang Bulge India controls the area till Y-junction), from the Indian Military Camp at Y-junction it flows NW-SW to Burtsa Patrol Base where it confluences with Depsang Nala and turns south flowing along "DSDBO Road" via Burtsa Yogma (confluence with Jiwan Nala) & Murgo (confluence with Murgo Nala) to its confluence with Shyok River at CCR Bridge. From Y-junction confluence, Reki Nala flows from North and provide access to China-held part of Aksai Chin and a second stream flowing south from Y-junction provides access to the origin of Jiwan Nala via a pass. The region comprising the valley of Shyok and Nubra Rivers is known as Nubra. The Karakoram Range in Ladakh is not as mighty as in Baltistan. The massifs to the north and east of the Nubra-Siachen valley include the Apsarasas group (highest point 7245 m), the Rimo group (highest point 7385 m) and the Teram Kangri group (highest point 7464 m), together with Mamostong Kangri (7526 m) and Singhi Kangri (7202 m.) North of the Karakoram lie the Kun Lun Mountains. Thus, between Leh and eastern Central Asia, there is a triple barrier: the Ladakh Range, the Karakoram range, and the Kun Lun. Nevertheless, a major trade route was established between Leh and Yarkand. Shyok River's tributaries are:
*** Chip Chap River: Originates in Karakoram range by collecting streams north & east of Tianwendian in China-held part of Aksai Chin. Joins Shyok river near Darbuk–Shyok–DBO Road (DS-DBO Road/DSDBO Road). Its tributaries are:
**** Lungnak Lungpa Stream: flows northeast to southwest and joins north bank of Chip Chap River near LAC.
**** DBO Stream or Chapo Chu: stream passing by Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO) joins Chip Chap River in the Indian controlled area of Depsang Plains.
*** Galwan River: originates near Samzungling campsite on eastern side of Karakoram range in China-held disputed territory and flows west to join the Shyok River in India-held area 102 km south of DBO. Galwan River valley is location of bloody 2020–2021 China–India skirmishes.
*** Chang Chenmo River: originates near Lanak La in China-held India-claimed area of Aksai Chin. Its tributary Kugrang River is held by India, while Kugrang's tributary to east of Kugran the Changlung river is held by China & claimed by India. The Gogra, held by India, is a pasture & confluence of Kugrang & Changlung Rivers. Hot Springs (also called Kyam or Kayam) is confluence of Kugrang with Chang Chenmo River. Gogra in Kugran Valley thus forms a key link, connecting the Kugrang valley, Changlung valley and Chang Chenmo.
**** Kugrang River flows from northwest to southeast within territory held by India, receiving the Changlung River tributary at Gogra and then continuing further south to fall into Chang Chenmo River near Hot Springs.
***** Changlung River, flows from north to southwest in China-held disputed territory, then ends into Kugrang River near the Gogra pasture held by India.
*** Durbuk Stream: flows east to west from Tangtse to confluence with Shyok River near Shyok village. Upstream at Tangtse, two following streams join to form the Durbuk Stream. These streams originate at Pangong Tso and western side of Chushul Heights respectively.
**** Pangong Stream: flows east to west from Pangong Tso, via Muglib, to Tangtse where it joins another stream from western side of Chushul heights and forms Durbuk Stream.
**** Chushul Western Stream: flows east to west from Chushul heights to confluence with Pangong Stream at Tangtse to forms Durbuk Stream.
*** Nubra River: runs from Siachen Glacier near Siachen Base Camp, via Panamik & Sasoma (starting point of Sasoma–Saser La Road to DBO in Depsang Plains), to its confluence with Shyok River near Diskit. Although, geographically the area between Diskit to Chalunka is not in Nubra River Valley as it is part of Shyok River itself, culturally it is considered part of the Nubra River Valley as they follow Buddhism. Chalunka to Turtuk (also see Battle of Turtuk) in India and beyond to Khaplu in PoK is called Chorbat Valley which is inhabited by the Balti-speaking Shia Muslims.
*** Chorbat Valley: from Chalunka (west of Diskit) to Khaplu in PoK is inhabited by Balti-speaking Shia Muslims.
** Zanskar River: 3 main tributaries are the Markha north of Padum, Stod (Doda) west of Padum, and the Lungnak (Tsarap Lingti) east of Padum. Zanskar suffers heavy snowfall, and the Pensi La which connects Stod River valley with Suru River valley opens only in June and is blocked again in mid-October. The entire valley is virtually treeless.
*** Markha River: tributary of Zanskar River flows Hankar in east to Chilling in west and joins Zanskar River few kilometer south of Nimoo near Chilling & Skyu on Nimmu–Padum–Darcha road (NPDR). Marka River forms the western side of northern boundary of Zanskar range.
*** Stod River: (Doda River): west of Padum, Stod originates from Drang-drung glacier of Pensi La and flows northwest to southeast through a broad open valley towards confluence with Lungnak River just east of Padum.
*** Lungnak River: flows east to west from Ladakh-Himachal-Tibet tri-junction to Padum. Its main tributaries are Tsarap River & Lingti River.
**** Lingti River: Lingti River and another tributary (name ?) confluence with Lungnak River just north of Bara-lacha-la, after which Lungnak River flows past Phugtal Monastery.
**** Kurgiak Cho (Kargyak River): descends from Shingo-la near Himachal-Ladakh-J&K tri-junction, flows south to northeast to confluences with Lungnak River near Gombo Rangjun (Gonbo Rangjon).
**** Tsarap River: Lies north of Lungnak River & Kargyak River, west of "Leh-Manali Highway", and east and north of Padum. It flows east to west till Tsarap River is Lungnak River's one of the main tributaries.
** Aryan Valley near Batalik: The Aryan Valley, situated between Khaltsi and Batalik on the banks of the Indus River, has an average altitude of 2700 meters. The valley's lower elevation, fertile soil, and warmer climate compared to Leh allow it to grow fruits like apricots, mulberries, grapes, and walnuts. It comprises four villages: Dah, Hanu, Garkhun, and Darchik. Dah and Hanu are in Leh district, while Garkhun and Darchik are in Kargil district. These villages are located near the Line of Control (LOC). Dah Valley and Hanu village have an upstream valley around the Indus, where streams join the Indus River. The valley is inhabited by the unique and culturally rich Brokpa people.
** Suru River: Pensi La (4400 metres) near Rangdum Monastery connects the Suru Valley in north with Stod River valley and Padum in Zanskar Valley in south. The Suru River originates from area northwest of Padum and flow past Sankoo southwest to northeast to Kargil, after receiving the combined waters of the Dras and Shingo Rivers a short distance north of Kargil it confluences with the Indus at Marol in Baltistan in PoK. Saru River forms the western boundary of the Zanskar range. Although Rangdum Monastery & Zulidok villages, both northeast of Pensi La, are in Suru River Valley, culturally they are considered part of Zanskar Valley (Stod Valley). Suru Valley is also the destination of the nomadic Bakarwal herdsmen who trek up every summer from the Jammu region.
*** Sankoo Stream: flows east to west from Itchu via Sangroh to join Suru River at Sankoo.
*** Dras River: a downstream tributary of Suru River which confluences at Kaksar (Kakshar, west of Kargil town) in India near LAC.
**** Shingo River: tributary of Dras River. Originates and flows through PoK Gilgit-Baltistan and enters Kargil district in India where it joins the Dras River.

## Gallery

* Landscape in Ladakh, near Pangong Tso
* View from Chang La Pass
* View of Leh from Khardung La Road