# Estonian Declaration of Independence

The Estonian Declaration of Independence, formally titled the Manifesto to the Peoples of Estonia (Estonian: Manifest Eestimaa rahvastele), is the founding document which established the independent democratic Republic of Estonia in 1918. Issued during a period of intense political upheaval and foreign occupation in the wake of World War I and the Russian Revolution, the declaration asserted Estonia's national sovereignty and commitment to democratic governance. The declaration announces and explains the separation of Estonia from the Russian Empire.
The Declaration was authored under the supervision of the Estonian Salvation Committee and adopted on 21 February 1918 unanimously by the Estonian Provincial Assembly's Council of Elders. It was read publicly for the first time on 23 February 1918, at 8 p.m. from the balcony of the Endla Theatre in Pärnu by Hugo Kuusner, a delegate of the Provincial Assembly. This historic act marked the formal proclamation of Estonia's independence. The proclamation in Pärnu preceded the official declaration in Tallinn on 24 February 1918, when the Estonian Provisional Government assumed control.
The Estonian Declaration of Independence formally proclaimed Estonia as a sovereign democratic republic, delineated within its historical and ethnographic boundaries. Rooted in historical, cultural, and ethnic claims, the manifesto was both a political statement and a symbolic act of national self-determination. It outlined the principles of a free and democratic state, guaranteed civil liberties, and established the pathway for building Estonia's national institutions. The declaration served as a cornerstone for the Republic of Estonia, influencing its legal and political framework and inspiring the nation's struggle for independence throughout the 20th century.
Since then, the 24 February has been celebrated as the Estonian Independence Day, the national day of Estonia.

## Background
### First proposals for Estonian independence

While Estonia had been part of the Russian Empire since the Great Northern War, the national awakening in the 19th century reaffirmed Estonian ethnic identity and paved way for nationalist aspirations toward the country's independence. A significant aspect of the movement was the collection and preservation of Estonian folklore, including pre-Christian myths and traditions, which fostered a sense of pride in an imagined or historical era of freedom before the Northern Crusades. This cultural awakening led to the publication of the Estonian national epic, Kalevipoeg, by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald in 1857. The epic, written in runic verse, tells of a mythical pre-Christian Estonian kingdom and includes a well-known prophecy about the return of King Kalev. In his widely publicized 1868 speech, Carl Robert Jakobson further advanced nationalist ideals, idealizing the ancient freedom of Estonians as a "time of light," contrasted it with the "period of darkness" brought by Christian domination, and envisioned a "dawn" of renewal. He expressed hope for reforms that would provide greater rights and improved conditions for Estonians, particularly for farmers, signaling optimism for a brighter future.
The idea of a republican Estonia was first mentioned in writing by Andres Dido [et], a figure in the Estonian national movement. In 1882, Dido's poem Eesti sõalaul ("Estonian War Song") included the line, "and over the Estonian Republic," marking the earliest known reference to a Republic of Estonia. Dido envisioned Estonia as a republic and advocated for equality and solidarity among nations. The concept of an independent Estonia was famously expressed by Juhan Liiv in his poem Kas näitad? ("Will You Show?"), where he wrote, "One day, there will be an Estonian State." Although the poem is undated, literary critic Friedebert Tuglas suggested that it was likely inspired by the revolutionary events of 1905. These words became a powerful symbol of Estonia's aspirations for sovereignty and national identity.
During the 1905 Revolution, the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful political demonstrations and violent riots with looting in the commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The flag of Estonia, adopted by the Estonian Students' Society since 1881, was prominently featured during these demonstrations. In December 1905, the first attempt to declare Estonia an independent country took place in the village of Vaali, Järvamaa. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.

### World War I and the February Revolution

During World War I, over 100,000 Estonian men were conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army, with approximately 8,000 to 10,000 perishing and one in five suffering injuries. Amid the hardships and shortages caused by the war, ideas of forming a national Estonian army began to gain traction. Civil unrest on the home front further fueled demands for greater autonomy, particularly as Estonians and other minority groups sought relief from imperial control. In May 1916, politician Jüri Vilms renewed the call for national autonomy, aligning with earlier aspirations to unify Estonia and parts of Livonia into a single administrative entity.
The February Revolution of 1917 brought significant upheaval to Estonia. On 15 March, a strike in Tallinn escalated into protests, with protesters attacking government institutions, freed prisoners, and dismantled the Provincial Government's administrative structures. This coincided with Tsar Nicholas II's abdication, marking the end of autocratic rule in Russia. As state institutions dissolved, Estonia began moving towards self-governance. Elections for the Tallinn Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies took place, with the council convening for the first time on March 16, signaling the start of more organized local governance. Of the 198 delegates elected, 58 were Bolsheviks, 87 were Social Revolutionaries, 29 were Mensheviks, and 22 were non-partisan.
On 19 March, Jaan Poska was appointed as the first Estonian governor of the Governorate of Estonia by the Russian Provisional Government. This marked the beginning of the Provisional Government's administrative authority in the region. Shortly thereafter, from 24 to 27 March, representatives from Estonian towns and municipalities met in Tartu to discuss a new system of governance to replace the control of the Baltic nobility. While Finland's electoral model was considered, a simpler system of general, indirect elections was chosen as a temporary measure, signifying a pivotal step toward self-governance. On 31 March, the draft Local Government Act was presented to the Provisional Government, signaling a growing determination among Estonian leaders to formalize autonomy.
On 8 April, nearly 40,000 Estonians, including up to 15,000 soldiers, marched in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg), the then-capital of Russia, to demand autonomy for their homeland. Carrying Estonian flags and singing patriotic songs, the demonstrators delivered their petition to the Russian Provisional Government at the Tauride Palace. Their efforts bore fruit just days later, when on April 12, the Provisional Government issued the Law on the Temporary Self-Government of Estonia. This decree granted significant autonomy, uniting the northern Governorate of Estonia with the Estonian-speaking regions of Livonia to form an autonomous entity. This achievement, born of coordinated efforts by Estonian leaders in Tartu, Petrograd, and Tallinn, faced resistance from Bolshevik and imperialist factions. Nonetheless, it established a foundation for advancing Estonia's national aspirations, evolving from demands for autonomy to aspirations of equal standing in a federative Russia.
The year 1917 also saw critical developments in Estonia's military organization. Under the leadership of Konstantin Päts, the Estonian Military Bureau was established, and Colonel Siegfried Pinding [et] was appointed to form an Estonian regiment. By July 1917, the First Congress of Estonian Soldiers elected an Estonian Military High Command, again under Päts' leadership, further solidifying the military as a key force in Estonia's struggle for self-determination. These combined political and military efforts laid the groundwork for Estonia's eventual declaration of independence.

### Estonian Provincial Assembly convenes

The Russian Provisional Government decreed that the provincial assembly be created with members elected by indirect universal suffrage. Elections for the 62 deputies of the Estonian Provincial Assembly were held in stages, with rural community representatives chosen in May–June and town representatives elected in July–August. The elections prompted the establishment and reorganization of Estonian national parties, with six parties represented in the assembly alongside three independent deputies and representatives of German and Swedish-speaking minorities. The elections were taken seriously by Estonian political factions, including nationalists and Bolsheviks. However, the Baltic nobility largely boycotted the process, and many Germans considered the assembly illegitimate. Furthermore, Russian soldiers and sailors, a significant revolutionary force in Estonia, were notably absent from the Provincial Assembly, reflecting the growing divide between Estonian nationalists and the revolutionary movement.
The Provincial Assembly's first session convened on 1 July 1917 at Toompea Castle. In his opening address, Governor Commissioner Jaan Poska symbolically proclaimed a new era for Estonians to govern their land. The assembly's initial decisions included establishing Estonian as its official working language and electing Artur Vallner as its temporary chairman. The Provincial Assembly also appointed the Estonian Provincial Government. Amid growing instability in Russia, the assembly gradually assumed powers beyond those typically granted to provincial governing bodies, evolving into a de facto national legislature. Reflecting this expanded role, the term Maapäev ("Land Diet") came into use. In July, the assembly established a council of elders comprising its leadership and representatives from all political parties, which played a pivotal role in guiding the independence movement during periods when the full assembly could not convene.
The capture of Riga by German forces on 3 September, and the subsequent German advance into Estonia profoundly influenced the assembly's actions. In an extraordinary session, the assembly debated forming a union with Baltic and Scandinavian nations and began laying the groundwork for foreign representation. On 26 September, responding to Bolshevik demands for dissolution, the assembly declared itself the legal representative of the Estonian people. It formed a commission to draft a proposal for Estonia's future governance, emphasizing that the Estonian people themselves would determine their constitution, potentially through a referendum. Although the assembly initially affirmed Estonia's place within a federative and democratic Russia, it reserved the right to pursue independence should such conditions fail to materialize. By the fall of 1917, the chaos of war – including the German occupation of the West Estonian Archipelago during Operation Albion and the retreat of plundering Russian forces – spurred greater unity among Estonian nationalists. While many initially considered full independence impractical, Estonian political parties increasingly supported the idea that the country's future would be decided by its future Constituent Assembly, signaling a significant shift toward sovereignty.

### Bolshevik coup

Following the Bolshevik coup in Petrograd that had removed the Russian Provisional Government on 7 November, the Estonian War-Revolutionary Committee declared itself the highest authority in Estonia. The next day, Viktor Kingissepp, deputy chairman of the committee, took over the administration from Jaan Poska, issuing orders for the transfer of power. The Bolsheviks established a one-party dictatorship, banning all other political parties and introducing temporary regulations for rural village councils. The influence of Bolshevik ideology, particularly among Russian soldiers and sailors stationed in Estonia, allowed them to consolidate power in Tallinn, presenting a serious challenge to Estonian nationalist movements.
The Petrograd coup and subsequent events in Estonia prompted urgent discussions among Estonian nationalist leaders. On the evening of October 26, as news of the coup reached Tallinn, members of the provincial government, including Jaan Poska, debated the prospect of declaring Estonia's independence. Discussions then turned to the methods by which independence could be achieved, with ongoing debates on the best course of action. Right-wing factions in the Provincial Assembly advocated for a decisive nationalist stance, pushing for autonomy and independence, while left-wing parties hesitated, hoping for potential cooperation with the Bolsheviks. However, there were notable exceptions within both camps. Despite Bolshevik dominance in Tallinn, the Provincial Assembly refused to recognize their authority, marking the start of a period of dual governance in Estonia.
In November 1917, the Bolsheviks formally disbanded the Provincial Assembly, but their control over Estonia remained incomplete. A dual authority emerged, with the Bolshevik administration competing against nationalist institutions. The nationalist movement drew significant support from the Estonian national forces, particularly the 1st Estonian Regiment, which had gained prominence defending Muhu during the German offensive. On November 8, the regiment's general assembly urged the Provincial Assembly to assume full authority, suggesting it convene in Haapsalu under their protection. The regiment's commitment to nationalist ideals and its role in maintaining order in western Estonia became pivotal in resisting Bolshevik dominance. Estonian nationalists were also supported by the Ukrainian soldiers stationed in Estonia, who were less influenced by Bolshevism.

### Provincial Assembly declares sovereignty

On 1 November 1917, during a meeting of the Provincial Assembly's Council of Elders, the need for Estonia to seek its own path became evident. At the suggestion of Jüri Vilms, the Council passed a resolution condemning the Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd, deeming it a threat to the freedom of all peoples in Russia. This was followed by a decision on November 7 to convene a session of the Provincial Assembly and prepare for elections to establish an Estonian Constituent Assembly of Estonia. Initial negotiations with Jaan Anvelt, the local Bolshevik leader, failed as he dismissed the idea of federalism and warned the Assembly to disband, threatening dissolution if it continued to meet. The Council of Elders rejected cooperation, and on November 12, the Bolsheviks ordered the dissolution of the Assembly while scheduling the elections for the Constituent Assembly for January. Despite this, the Council resolved to convene the Assembly on November 28 in defiance of Bolshevik authority.
At the extraordinary session on November 28, 1917, chaired by Otto Strandman, the Provincial Assembly adopted three landmark resolutions prepared by the Council of Elders. These decisions included plans to convene an Estonian Constituent Assembly, a declaration asserting the Provincial Assembly as the supreme authority in Estonia until the Constituent Assembly met, and the granting of legislative power to the Council of Elders and the Provincial Government during recess periods. By claiming supreme authority, the Provincial Assembly legally distanced Estonia from the Russian state, asserting the right of Estonians to determine their own destiny. This act laid the groundwork for the establishment of an independent Estonian state, even as theoretical ties to a reformed Russian federation remained a possibility.
The Assembly's refusal to comply with Bolshevik orders to disband was unanimous, marking a defiant stand for self-determination. Minutes after the session, Bolshevik demonstrators stormed the chamber, wielding red banners and declaring the Provincial Assembly disbanded. Simultaneously, unrest erupted outside Toompea Castle, with several Assembly members physically attacked. These events made it impossible for the Assembly to reconvene the following day, forcing leading nationalist politicians to go underground. Despite this suppression, in early 1918 elections organized by the Bolsheviks, two-thirds of voters supported parties advocating for national independence.
In early February, the Bolsheviks nullified the ongoing elections and launched widespread repressions. Estonian nationalists, faced with Bolshevik crackdown, shifted their strategy. Meetings in the modest rooms of the Estonian Intellectuals' Club in the Estonia Theatre in Tallinn became the epicenter of the independence movement. During one such meeting, it was decided to pursue independence through "revolutionary means". This required drafting a Declaration of Independence addressed to the Estonian people and proclaiming it publicly at the first suitable opportunity – specifically in a location where control could be wrested from the Bolsheviks. This marked a decisive shift in the strategy to achieve Estonian sovereignty, setting the stage for the public announcement of independence later that month.

### German offensive and the Salvation Committee

In the autumn of 1917, the Baltic Trust Council (Balti Usaldusnõukogu) was formed, reflecting Baltic German aspirations for independence from Russia. By October, Eduard von Dellingshausen [de], head of the Estonian Knighthood, informed the German government that Baltic Germans had effectively severed ties with Russia. General Erich Ludendorff, in early November, underscored the need for support from Estonians and Latvians during the Brest-Litovsk peace negotiations, advocating declarations of secession based on the Soviet-endorsed principle of self-determination. On 13 December, the Estonian Knighthood declared independence from Russia and requested German military occupation. The Livonian Knighthood followed with a similar declaration on 30 December.
Amid these developments, the Estonian nationalist leaders opposed alignment with German occupation, proposing instead to resist by declaring Estonia's independence to elevate its sovereignty internationally. At a critical Council of Elders meeting on 6 January, Gustav Suits, a prominent Estonian intellectual, argued for immediate action, emphasizing the strategic importance of an independence declaration both domestically and abroad, particularly to democratic circles in Germany. A declaration of independence, he reasoned, would position Estonia as a sovereign entity on the international stage, countering the looming threat of annexation by Germany. This marked a turning point, as Estonian nationalists sought to capitalize on the geopolitical instability to assert their right to self-determination and lay the groundwork for international recognition.
The urgency of this effort grew as German forces began Operation Faustschlag on 18 February, following Leon Trotsky's withdrawal from the Brest-Litovsk negotiations. German troops landed near Virtsu on 20 February and advanced toward Tallinn. On 21 February, they issued an ultimatum to the Soviet government demanding Russian withdrawal from Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Ukraine. German forces captured Haapsalu that same day and Valga on 22 February. The retreat of Soviet Bolshevik forces left a power vacuum, which Estonian nationalist leaders saw as a fleeting opportunity. On 19 February, the Estonian Salvation Committee was formed under the Provincial Assembly's authority, consisting of Konstantin Päts, Jüri Vilms, and Konstantin Konik. This committee directed the drafting of Estonia's Declaration of Independence, which would soon be proclaimed to solidify Estonia's claim to sovereignty amidst the chaotic geopolitical landscape.

## Draft and adoption

In early 1918, under the constraints of the Bolshevik dictatorship, establishing an independent Estonian state on legal grounds was unattainable. Estonian nationalists resolved to proclaim independence publicly through a declaration. On February 18, a pivotal meeting was held at the Estonian Intellectuals' Club to deliberate on the draft of the Estonian Declaration of Independence. The foundational principles of the Declaration received unanimous approval, and a commission was promptly formed to finalize the text. The commission, composed of Karl Ast, Jüri Jaakson, Juhan Kukk, and Jüri Vilms – all members of the Provincial Assembly – was instructed to complete their work by the next day, reflecting the urgency of the rapidly evolving political situation.
Kukk was entrusted with preparing the initial draft, working under clandestine conditions due to the risks of Bolshevik raids. Each sentence was carefully crafted, with multiple revisions to ensure clarity and precision. Kukk wrote the manifesto on loose notebook pages, keeping each page separate as a precaution against the entire document falling into Bolshevik hands during potential raids or searches.
On February 20, journalist Johan Juhtund arrived in Tallinn with a proposal from the leadership of the 1st Estonian Regiment to declare independence under the regiment's protection in Haapsalu. Upon navigating through the city and finding many prominent figures absent from their usual locations, Juhtund eventually reached the Intellectuals' Club, where he presented his mission. To his surprise, the leaders informed him that the trip to Haapsalu could not proceed immediately due to the fact that the manifesto had not yet been fully edited. The meeting concluded with an agreement to reconvene the next morning at the same venue to finalize and approve the declaration.
That evening, the nationalist leaders convened at the Intellectuals' Club to discuss the draft of the manifesto. Engineer Ferdinand Peterson critiqued the text as overly general and akin to a "mood leaflet", prompting further revisions. A three-member editorial commission – comprising Juhan Kukk, Ferdinand Peterson, and Jüri Jaakson – was formed to refine the text. However, Jaakson left the meeting early, leaving Peterson and Kukk to complete the revisions at Kukk's apartment. They "weighed words and sentences carefully to ensure the manifesto expressed the aspirations of the Estonian people, aligned with the views of the majority of the representatives, and that the thoughts and expressions would be clear and prevent any future misinterpretations."
The manifesto's primary author, Juhan Kukk, worked closely with Ferdinand Peterson to finalize the text. Kukk, operating under constant threat from Bolshevik authorities, drafted the manifesto on scraps of paper and reviewed it at meetings. By February 20, the draft was presented to a joint meeting of the Council of Elders, the Provisional Provincial Government, and political party representatives at the Intellectuals' Club in Tallinn. Gathered around chess tables, attendees discussed and approved the draft with minor changes. A final editing commission, including Jaan Poska, Konstantin Päts, and Juhan Kukk, completed the document, ensuring it met the highest standards of clarity and purpose.
Its final approval took place the following day, on the morning of February 21, 1918. The Declaration of Independence was completed on the morning of 21 February. A few hours later, during another meeting at the Intellectuals' Club, it was officially approved by the Council of Elders of the Provincial Assembly. According to Ferdinand Peterson, he and Juhan Kukk had not included this signature earlier, assuming that the signatories would be members of the Salvation Committee. The manifesto was issued, dated 21 February, proclaiming Estonia as an independent democratic republic "from this day onward."

## Public proclamation
### Initial plans

Once finalized, the distribution and duplication of the Estonian Declaration of Independence faced significant challenges. At the time, Bolshevik control over all printing presses in Tallinn made open production of the manifesto impossible. Handwriting copies for distribution carried considerable risks, as their capture by Bolshevik authorities could lead to arrests of members of the Provincial Assembly and the government. Despite these dangers, several handwritten copies of the manifesto were prepared and smuggled to key cities like Pärnu, Haapsalu, and Tartu, hidden creatively in clothing linings or boots. The original copy was safeguarded by Karl Tiitso [et], an Estonian officer, who concealed it in a waterproof envelope until the official proclamation.
Although the proclamation was initially planned for 21 February, logistical and security issues delayed it. Haapsalu was first selected as the site due to the presence of the 1st Estonian Regiment, which opposed Bolshevik influence. However, reports of an advancing German offensive prompted urgent action. Colonel Ernst Põdder of the regiment requested a national leader to travel to Haapsalu to declare independence. Members of the Salvation Committee and other officials attempted to reach Haapsalu but were forced to turn back when they learned that German troops had already entered the town. Their return journey to Tallinn was fraught with danger, including confrontations with Bolshevik forces, but they escaped unharmed.
With Haapsalu under German control, Tartu emerged as an alternative location for the proclamation. As Estonia's intellectual and nationalist center, Tartu offered symbolic value and the potential support of the Estonian Reserve Battalion stationed there. However, by 23 February, German advances had severed railway connections to the city. Efforts to send representatives with copies of the Declaration to Tartu were thwarted, forcing the nationalist leaders to refocus their plans. Ultimately, Pärnu was chosen as the site for the first public proclamation, as it offered a more favorable environment for asserting Estonia's independence while avoiding Bolshevik interference.

### Proclamation in Pärnu

At the meeting on 20 February at the Intellectuals' Club in Tallinn, August Jürman proposed Pärnu as a fallback location for proclaiming independence if other plans failed. Pärnu, with its weaker Bolshevik presence, was deemed a safer alternative. Before the planned trip to Haapsalu, Konstantin Päts instructed Hugo Kuusner to proceed with the proclamation in Pärnu if necessary. Unbeknownst to those in Tallinn, a significant shift in power occurred in Pärnu on 20 February. News of advancing German forces caused Bolshevik authorities to flee, and the next day, Feliks-Johannes Tannebaum [et], commander of the Pärnu Estonian Battalion, announced that the battalion had taken control. That evening, a public meeting affirmed the declaration of independence, symbolizing the people's support for the nationalist cause.
On 22 February, the Pärnu Battalion officially declared that executive power in Pärnu had been transferred to Estonian national forces. As the Soviets and Russian troops fled, they abandoned significant supplies, leaving the city under nationalist control. That evening, local leaders, including August Jürman, convened at the Endla Theatre to discuss the political changes and prepare for a formal proclamation of independence. The atmosphere was charged with anticipation as the groundwork was laid for the historic event.
The following day, 23 February, Jaan Soop, an official of the nationalist government, arrived in Pärnu carrying two copies of the Declaration. These documents, hidden in his galoshes and coat, had been smuggled out of Tallinn under harrowing circumstances, with Soop narrowly escaping Bolshevik pursuit. The manifesto was immediately prepared for printing at the Meie Kodumaa printing house, managed by Aleksander and Maria Jürvetson. Under Maria's supervision, the printing was completed with urgency, producing between 20,000 and 60,000 copies for distribution. Despite logistical challenges, the Declaration quickly reached urban centers and rural areas alike, ensuring its widespread dissemination.
The declaration was publicly proclaimed later that evening, at 8:00 PM, from the balcony of the Endla Theatre. Hugo Kuusner, a member of the Estonian Provincial Assembly, delivered the historic address under torchlight. His speech was met with overwhelming enthusiasm from the assembled crowd. Local schoolgirls handed out blue-black-white ribbons, symbolizing national pride, as the Pärnu Battalion marked the occasion with ceremonial rifle salutes. The gathering culminated in the singing of the national anthem, Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm, as the crowd celebrated Estonia's long-awaited declaration of independence.

### Proclamation in Tallinn

The situation in Tallinn remained tense as the Bolsheviks still maintained authority. Initial plans to have Jüri Vilms read the manifesto on 23 February during an afternoon performance at the Estonia Theatre were thwarted when the Bolsheviks declared a state of emergency and banned public gatherings. Despite this, art teacher Eduard Taska [et] managed to print some copies of the manifesto that evening, which were distributed and posted around the city by Voldemar Päts and Aleksander Veiler. Meanwhile, national forces began mobilizing as Bolshevik authority started to waver.
The situation changed dramatically on the night of 23 February when Soviet authorities sent an official message about the transfer of Estonia to German forces. This triggered the evacuation of Bolshevik forces from Tallinn in the early hours of 24 February, retreating towards the harbor in preparation for departure. Nationalists seized the opportunity, with groups such as Aleksander Hellat's militia and Konrad Rotschild [et]'s military unit stepping forward to maintain order and assert Estonian control. As Bolsheviks resisted losing control over the harbor and power station, local defense units and student volunteers repelled attacks, with notable sacrifices including the fatal wounding of student leader Johann Muischneek [et], who later became known as one of the first martyrs of independent Estonia. The Salvation Committee met at the State Bank to coordinate efforts for the official transfer of power. While the declaration was later associated with the State Bank's main hall, it was the rapidly changing circumstances that facilitated the official proclamation.
Printing the manifesto in Tallinn became possible only after the Bolsheviks began their retreat. Konstantin Konik, tasked by the Salvation Committee, initiated printing at the Päevaleht printing house on the afternoon of 24 February. With assistance from Veiler, Karl Mikita, and Arthur Devis, the manifesto was produced using manual presses under armed guard, with around 200 copies distributed by evening. The Estonian Labour Party played a significant role in this effort, ensuring the manifesto reached public spaces across the city. A typewritten copy had already been displayed earlier at the Tallinn City Pharmacy on Väike-Karja Street. The declaration was formally celebrated on 25 February with ceremonies at schools and churches, followed by a military parade in the city center, during which Konstantin Päts publicly read the manifesto to the gathered crowd.

### Proclamation elsewhere

The Declaration reached Viljandi on 24 February, delivered by Jakob Karu from Pärnu. The city, already under the control of the 2nd Estonian Regiment following the retreat of Bolshevik forces on the night of 22–23 February, was relatively calm but uncertain about the broader situation in Estonia. That afternoon, posters announcing the proclamation of independence were distributed and displayed, calling citizens to gather at the town hall. At 4:00 PM, Mayor Gustav Talts [et] read the manifesto aloud, and the national flag was raised, symbolizing Estonia's newfound independence. The national anthem was sung by the assembled crowd. A second reading of the manifesto took place the following day, 25 February, by Lieutenant Juhan Järver [et] of the 2nd Estonian Regiment, who led his soldiers in singing the anthem.
In Paide, independence was proclaimed on 24 February under the leadership of Captain Jaan Maide, commander of the local Estonian battalion. On the previous night, the battalion arrested Bolshevik leaders and secured key facilities, paving the way for the proclamation. County police chief Jaan Lintrop [et] issued a public notice urging cooperation with the independence efforts. A formal gathering in Paide's town square followed on 25 February, where Captain Maide publicly read the manifesto to the residents. The ceremony featured music, singing, and a ceremonial salute by the soldiers. The Declaration was subsequently translated into German, and local German military officials were informed of the declaration.
The independence proclamation reached Rakvere via a telegram sent by Lieutenant Theodor Käärik from Tallinn on 24 February. Despite Bolshevik control of the local post office, Tõnis Kalbus, a former county commissioner, intercepted the message and passed it to Mihkel Juhkam, head of the county government. Copies of the message were distributed throughout the city. By 25 February, the Bolsheviks began retreating, and by the morning of 26 February, control of Rakvere had passed to national forces, aided by the 4th Estonian Battalion. At a public meeting that day, Tõnis Kalbus read the Declaration, officially announcing Estonia's independence to the local population.
Lieutenant Käärik's telegram also reached Petrograd and Narva. In Petrograd, the newspaper Eesti published the declaration of independence in its 26 February issue, including the full text of the Declaration and the orders of the Salvation Committee. However, there was little more that the Estonian community in Petrograd could do under Bolshevik control. In contrast, the nationalists in Narva took further action. On the night of 25 February, Christjan Kaarna convened a meeting of pro-independence activists at the local Labour Party committee rooms and read out Käärik's telegram. The telegram was met with enthusiasm, and after the initial excitement, the message was printed and publicly displayed. The K. Anvelt and Co. printing house, led by Jakob Kull, printed around 2,500 copies by 8:00 AM. However, the distribution of the telegram was clandestine as the Bolsheviks still held firm control in Narva. Mass arrests soon followed, halting further dissemination of the message. At the same time, the Bolsheviks announced from the town hall that there was no such entity as the Republic of Estonia, that Bolshevik power in Tallinn was secure, and that the distributed telegram was a provocative falsehood.
It is likely that on 25 February, the declaration was also publicly read out in Otepää. The manifesto was printed and distributed in Pärnu, Paide, and Tallinn. The total number of printed exemplars was likely around 40,000, but may have been as high as 100,000. Additionally, the text was published on 25 February in the newspaper Päevaleht and on 26 February, in the Petrograd-based newspaper Eesti. These efforts ensured the wide dissemination of the declaration, solidifying Estonia's announcement of independence to both domestic and international audiences.

## Content of the Declaration

The declaration stated Estonia's independence and outlined the principles of the newly established republic. The declaration aimed to clearly outline Estonia's territorial sovereignty, legal principles, and the future democratic governance of the state. The authors worked through the night to ensure the text expressed the hopes and aspirations of the Estonian people. It was designed as a foundational state document, akin to a brief constitution, articulating the freedoms, rights, and responsibilities of Estonian citizens while calling for the formation of a constituent assembly to establish the nation's governance. The manifesto declared Estonia an independent democratic republic. It stipulated that the national order of the Estonian state would be determined by the future Constituent Assembly of Estonia.

### Cultural and mythological references

The Estonian Declaration of Independence opens with a symbolic reference to the enduring national spirit and the centuries-old hope for freedom. Drawing imagery from Kalevipoeg, the Estonian national epic, it evokes the closing prophecy that "when all splinters, at both ends, will burst forth into flames" and "Kalev will come home to bring his children happiness." These words connect the declaration to Estonia's mythological heritage, portraying independence as the fulfillment of a long-awaited promise. The Declaration concludes with the final stanza of Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm, later the national anthem, seeking divine protection and prosperity for the new republic. This blend of mythological, spiritual, and patriotic elements elevates the Declaration beyond a legal or political document, casting it as a symbol of national rebirth and unity.
The text also emphasizes the unbroken connection between past, present, and future generations. It calls on "Sons and daughters of our homeland" to honor the sacrifices of their ancestors and fulfill their duty to future generations by building a strong and independent Estonia. This intergenerational reverence reflects the core of Estonian identity, where family, heritage, and the veneration of ancestors are deeply rooted, echoing themes of Estonian folk religion. By intertwining cultural heritage and the struggle for independence, the declaration presents the birth of the republic as a culmination of centuries of perseverance and as a sacred mission to protect the nation's sovereignty for generations to come.

### Democratic governance

The Estonian Declaration of Independence emphasized the creation of a democratic state, with the promise of convening a Constituent Assembly to establish the nation's governance and legal order. The manifesto detailed the inclusion of Estonian territories within its borders and affirmed the legitimacy of the Salvation Committee while emphasizing its connection to the Estonian Provincial Assembly. Until the Constituent Assembly could determine the permanent governance structure, the manifesto entrusted legislative and executive powers to the Assembly and the Provisional Government it would establish.
Central to the declaration was a robust framework of civil liberties. It enshrined fundamental rights such as equality before the law, freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, association, and the right to strike. The manifesto also guaranteed security and protection for the population and their property, asserting the responsibility of the Provisional Government to address urgent social, economic, and organizational matters. The declaration underscored Estonia's commitment to neutrality in international relations, expressing a desire for reciprocal neutrality from other states. This commitment to a democratic and peaceful order highlighted the country's intention to engage with the global community as a responsible and independent nation. By affirming these democratic principles and rights, the Estonian Declaration of Independence laid a strong foundation for a modern constitutional nation-state. These elements not only addressed the immediate challenges of nation-building but also projected a long-term commitment to the ideals of democracy and sovereignty.

### Ethnic relations

While the Estonian Declaration of Independence sought to establish an ethnic nation-state for the Estonian people, it also emphasized the principle of equal rights for all citizens. The manifesto served as both a declaration of self-determination for Estonians and an invitation to other ethnic groups residing in the country to participate in the nascent republic. This dual purpose is reflected in its original title, "Manifesto to the Peoples of Estonia", which addressed all inhabitants of the region, including ethnic minorities, as integral to the state-building process. Kaarel Eenpalu, a member of the Constituent Assembly's committee, later remarked that the new state sought to establish a foundation free of national intolerance or oppression.
A notable feature of the declaration was its promise of cultural autonomy for ethnic minorities. It specifically guaranteed this right to Russians, Germans, Swedes, Jews, and other groups within Estonia's borders, a progressive commitment formalized with the Cultural Autonomy Law passed in 1925. This law, unique in Europe at the time, allowed minorities with a population of over 3,000 and long-standing ties to Estonia to form cultural councils and manage their cultural affairs independently. The law was reinstated after Estonia regained independence in 1991.

### State borders

The Declaration formally established Estonia as a sovereign democratic republic, defined within its historical and ethnographic boundaries. This proclamation marked the beginning of Estonia's efforts to delineate its territorial integrity, explicitly listing regions that had long been inhabited by Estonians. Territories mentioned in the Declaration included Harjumaa, Läänemaa, Järvamaa, Virumaa (including the city of Narva and its surroundings), Tartumaa, Võrumaa, Viljandimaa, Pärnumaa, and the Baltic islands such as Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, and Muhu. The declaration also outlined a mechanism for resolving disputes in border areas, stating that the final determination of Estonia's boundaries with Latvia and Russia would be carried out via plebiscite after the conclusion of World War I.
At the time, certain areas mentioned in the declaration were not administratively part of Estonian territory. Notably, Narva and its surroundings were included in the Saint Petersburg Governorate under Russian rule. Thus, the inclusion of Narva in the declaration reflected Estonia's intent to reclaim historically and ethnographically Estonian regions. This assertion of sovereignty over contested territories underscored the national aspirations embedded in the declaration, despite the ongoing uncertainties caused by the collapse of the Russian Empire and the ongoing global conflict.
The eastern border with Russia was later solidified with the Treaty of Tartu, following the Estonian War of Independence. This treaty recognized Estonia's independence and established the eastern frontier. The southern border with Latvia was settled with British arbitration after the Walk crisis, a territorial dispute that emerged in the post-war period. Despite the agreements, border disputes have persisted, particularly regarding the eastern border with Russia. Following the Soviet occupation of Estonia in 1940 and the subsequent annexation, Russia has not fully recognized the terms of the Treaty of Tartu. This has led to a long-standing Estonian–Russian territorial dispute.

## Legacy

The Estonian Declaration of Independence was a defining moment in the nation's history. Although German forces occupied Estonia shortly after the proclamation, the Declaration laid the foundation for the international recognition of Estonian independence following the end of World War I. Despite subsequent occupation by the German Empire, the Declaration laid the foundation for the Republic of Estonia. Following the defeat of the Central Powers, Germany withdrew its troops from Estonia in November 1918 and formally handed over power to the Estonian Provisional Government. The Declaration's principles became the foundation for the Republic of Estonia, guiding its emergence as an independent state.
The subsequent years were marked by conflict and resilience. The Russian Bolshevik invasion and the Estonian War of Independence tested the nation's resolve, culminating in the signing of the Tartu Peace Treaty on February 2, 1920. This treaty secured Estonia's independence and established its eastern borders. By 1921, Estonia gained international recognition and joined the League of Nations, solidifying its place as a sovereign state in the global community. The ideals enshrined in the declaration shaped Estonia's democratic governance and legal framework, influencing the national identity and aspirations.
Symbolic sites associated with the declaration have become revered landmarks in Estonia's history. The Endla Theatre balcony in Pärnu, where the declaration was first publicly read, and the adjoining square are commemorated as iconic locations in the struggle for independence. February 24, marking the events surrounding the proclamation, has been celebrated annually as Estonia's Independence Day already since 1919. These dates serve as reminders of the courage and determination that defined the country's path to freedom. The dramatic journey of transporting the declaration from Tallinn to Pärnu was depicted in the first episode of the 2013 Estonian television series Tuulepealne maa.

### The document today

On February 21, 2013, the 95th anniversary of the Estonian Declaration of Independence, a commemorative display was unveiled in the Green Hall of Stenbock House, the seat of the Estonian government in Tallinn. The exhibit prominently features the original Manifesto to the Peoples of Estonia, alongside a handwritten draft of the manifesto prepared by Juhan Kukk. The original manifesto and the enlarged photocopy of Juhan Kukk's handwritten draft were provided by the National Archives of Estonia. The Green Hall, now informally referred to as the Independence Manifesto Hall, also showcases portraits of key contributors to the manifesto, including Juhan Kukk and Jüri Jaakson, underscoring the hall's symbolic role in preserving and celebrating Estonia's path to independence.