# Chibchan languages

The Chibchan languages (also known as Chibchano) make up a language family indigenous to the Isthmo-Colombian Area, which extends from eastern Honduras to northern Colombia and includes populations of these countries as well as Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The name is derived from the name of an extinct language called Chibcha or Muisca, once spoken by the people who lived on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of which the city of Bogotá was the southern capital at the time of the Spanish Conquista. However, genetic and linguistic data now indicate that the original heart of Chibchan languages and Chibchan-speaking peoples might not have been in Colombia, but in the area of the Costa Rica-Panama border, where the greatest variety of Chibchan languages has been identified.

## External relations

A larger family called Macro-Chibchan, which would contain the Misumalpan languages, Xinca, and Lenca, was found convincing by Kaufman (1990).
Based primarily on evidence from grammatical morphemes, Pache (2018, 2023) suggests a distant relationship with the Macro-Jê languages.

## Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Andaki, Barbakoa, Choko, Duho, Paez, Sape, and Taruma language families due to contact.

## Classification

* Chibchan
** A
*** Waimí (Guaymi)
**** Guaymí (Ngäbere, Movere) – 170,000 speakers, vulnerable in Panama, endangered in Costa Rica
**** Buglere (Bokotá) – 18,000 speakers, endangered
*** Borũca (Brunca) – 140 speakers, moribund
*** Talamanca
**** Huetar (Güetar) †
**** Bribri (Talamanca), 7,000 speakers – vulnerable in Costa Rica, endangered in Panama
**** Cabécar (Talamanca) – 8,800 speakers, vulnerable
**** Teribe (Norteño) – 3,300 speakers, endangered
** B
*** Pech (Paya) – 990 speakers, endangered
*** Dorasque †
*** Votic
**** Rama – 740 speakers, moribund
**** Voto †
**** Maléku (Guatuso) – 750 speakers, endangered
**** Corobicí – northwestern Costa Rica †
*** Cuna–Colombian
**** Kuna (Dulegaya) – 60,600 speakers, vulnerable in Panama, endangered in Colombia
**** Chibcha–Motilon
***** Barí (Motilón) – 5,000 speakers, vulnerable
***** Chibcha–Tunebo
****** Muisca – †
****** Duit †
****** U'wa (Tunebo) – 2,550 speakers, endangered
****** Guane † – Colombia
**** Arwako–Chimila
***** Chimila – 350 speakers, endangered
***** Arwako
****** Wiwa (Malayo, Guamaca) – 1,850 speakers, endangered
****** Kankuamo †
****** Arhuaco (Ikʉ) – 8,000 speakers, vulnerable
****** Kogi (Cogui) – 9,910 speakers, vulnerable
The extinct languages of Antioquia, Old Catío and Nutabe have been shown to be Chibchan (Adelaar & Muysken, 2004:49). The language of the Tairona is unattested, apart from a single word, but may well be one of the Arwako languages still spoken in the Santa Marta range. It is said to be used by the Kogi people as a shamanistic ritual language. The Zenú a.k.a. Sinú language of northern Colombia is also sometimes included, as are the Malibu languages, though without any factual basis.
Adolfo Constenla Umaña argues that Cueva, the extinct dominant language of Pre-Columbian Panama long assumed to be Chibchan based on a misinterpreted Kuna vocabulary, was actually Chocoan, but there is little evidence.
The Cofán language (Kofán, Kofane, A'i) of Ecuador and Colombia has been erroneously included in Chibchan due to borrowed vocabulary.
On the basis of shared grammatical innovations, Pache (2023) argues that Pech is most closely related to the Arhuacic languages of northern Colombia, forming a Pech-Arhuacic subgroup.

### Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):
(† = extinct)
* Chibcha
** Pech
** Votic
*** Maleku
*** Rama
*** Wetar
** Isthmus
*** Boruka-Talamanca
**** Boruka
**** Talamanca
***** Teribe
***** Bribri-Kabekar
****** Bribri
****** Kabekar
*** Doraske-Changena
**** Changena †
**** Doraske †
*** Guaymi
**** Buglere
**** Ngäbe
*** Kuna
**** Kuna Paya-Pukuro
**** Kuna San Blas
** Magdalena
*** Barí
*** Chimila
*** Nutabe †
*** U'wa
*** Muisca
**** Guane †
**** Muisca
*** Sierra de Santa Marta
**** Kaggaba
**** Tairona †
**** Wiwa-Ika
***** Ika
***** Kankuamo †
***** Wiwa

## Varieties

Below is a full list of Chibchan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.

## Proto-language

Pache (2018) is the most recent reconstruction of Proto-Chibchan. Other reconstructions include Holt (1986).

### Constenla (1981)

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981):
Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981) :
| gloss | Proto-Chibchan |
| arm, hand, shoulder | *ˈkuíkI, *ˈkuí- |
| ashes | *bur-, *buˈrṹ |
| at, in | *skA; *ki; *sə |
| at, in, towards | *ka |
| big (size or quantity) | *təˈĩ |
| bird | *dù |
| blood | *ApÍ |
| boat, craft | *huˈLù |
| body | *AˈpÀ |
| bone | *ˈkàrə |
| breasts | *kAʔ |
| breast | *ˈtsúʔ, *ˈtsúʔtsú |
| brother | *səˈkə |
| brother-in-law | *ˈuba; *ˈduáʔ |
| butterfly | *kuA-, *kuAʔ- |
| cedar (several trees of the Cedrela genus) | *uˈru |
| ceiba | *puLí, *puLíkI |
| child, young of an animal, egg | *əˈrə̀ |
| child, young of an animal | *ˈuÁʔ- |
| cloth | *ˈsuá- |
| cloud | *ˈbõ̀, *bo- |
| cockroach | *ˈsóx- |
| cocoa | *kə́ˈhùʔ |
| come | *ˈda-; *ˈdI- |
| cook | *ˈdu- |
| cotton | *suˈhí |
| cough, catarrh | *ˈtóʔ |
| crocodile | *ˈkú- |
| cultivated field | *ˈtÌ |
| curassow (Crax rubra) | *ˈdubÍ |
| deer | *ˈsur, *ˈsurĩ̀ |
| diminutive | *-ˈaːrə |
| dog | *ˈto |
| dove (common ground dove) | *ˈÚtu- |
| dry | *diˈsə- |
| dry season | *ˈduá- |
| eagle, hawk | *ˈpṹ |
| ear | *ˈkuhkə́, *ˈkuhkuə́ |
| eat, drink | *ˈga- |
| egg, sprout, suckling | *ˈpú |
| emerald toucanet | *dəˈkər̃ə́ |
| enter | *ˈdok- |
| excrement | *ˈgã́ |
| eye | *úb |
| face | *uˈbə́ |
| father | *ˈkáka |
| feline | *dəbə̃́; *kuLÁʔ |
| find | *ˈkũ |
| finger, hand | *ˈkU |
| firewood, fire, coal, live coal | *ˈgÌ |
| first person prefix | *də̃- |
| fish | *ˈuA; *dibÃ̀ |
| five | *sAkẽ́ |
| flesh | *gAtA |
| fly | *ˈkulu |
| foot | *sAˈkə̃ |
| four | *bəhˈke |
| fruit | *ubə́ |
| give birth | *ˈgU- |
| gnat (jején) | *buˈr̃ṹʔ |
| go | *ˈdA- |
| grease | *ˈkiə́ |
| grind | *ˈuʔ |
| grindstone, to sharpen | *ˈiáʔ |
| grow, widen | *təˈlə- |
| guan (bird) | *ˈkũ̀ |
| hand | *AtA; *guLÀ |
| head, hair | *ˈtsã̀ |
| house | *ˈhu |
| how many | *ˈbi |
| hunger | *bAˈLi |
| I | *ˈda |
| jocote (Spondias purpurea), jobo (Spondias mombin) | *bəˈrə́ʔ |
| kill | *ˈguə |
| know, see | *sũ |
| lake | *iAˈbÁ |
| laugh | *ˈhaĩ |
| laurel (Cordia alliodora) | *ˈBúʔ |
| leaf | *ˈkə́ |
| leg | *kəˈrə |
| liquid | *dí; *ˈli |
| lizard | *ulíʔ |
| louse | *ˈkṹ |
| maize | *ˈIBI |
| make | *gU |
| mayo (tree) | *bèk |
| monkey: howler monkey | *úriʔ |
| monkey: spider monkey | *dõ̀, *do- |
| monkey: white-faced monkey | *hòkI |
| moon, month | *siˈhíʔ |
| mother-in-law | *ˈgAkA |
| mouse | *ˈsuhkÌ |
| mouth | *ˈkahkə |
| mud | *ˈdÚ; *oˈr̃i |
| name | *ˈhaká |
| nape, neck | *duˈkurə |
| neck | *ˈgala |
| net | *kAˈlÁʔ |
| nose | *dəˈIkI |
| now | *ˈBə |
| old | *AˈkÍkI; *tAˈlá |
| one | *ˈé ? |
| otter | *doʔ |
| paca (Agouti paca) | *ˈkuri |
| peachpalm (Bactris gasipaes, Guilelma utilis) | *ˈsúbaʔ |
| peccary (Tayassu pecari spiradens) | *siˈdĩ́ʔ |
| peel, undress | *ˈsu- |
| person | *ApÍ- |
| place, time, environment, land | *ˈká |
| plant | *ˈdi |
| poró tree, elequeme tree (synonyms) | *baˈlò |
| pot, vessel, jar | *ˈũ |
| pumpkin, squash | *Apì |
| rattle, maraca, colander, gourd cup (= object elaborated from a gourd) | *ˈtã́ |
| reed | *kəˈru |
| rotten | *ˈdṹ |
| sand | *ˈu; *ˈuBA |
| say | *ˈguA-; *ˈgI |
| sea | *dAgÌ |
| second person prefix | *bi- |
| see | *ˈguəkI |
| seek | *ˈdí |
| seed, plant | *ˈpkua |
| seize, hold | *kaLUh- |
| seven | *ˈkúh- |
| shark | *tAˈLì |
| shrimp | *ˈkUs |
| sing | *ˈtA |
| six | *ˈted |
| skin, bark | *hukə́ |
| sleep | *kAp- |
| small | *ˈ¢id |
| smell, odor | *hALÀ |
| snake | *tAkAbÌ |
| soil, earth, dirt, clay | *ˈtÁBA |
| son | *gAbÀ |
| spider | *óhk |
| squirrel | *kudã́ |
| star | *bÌ- |
| stick (a spear), insert, put in | *ˈtsã |
| stone | *ˈhákI |
| sun | *dì; *ˈka; *dui |
| sweet | *bəˈlóʔ |
| tail | *ˈduhkI |
| tapir | *dAĩ́ʔ |
| take | *ˈgúʔ |
| tear | *ˈubə́diə |
| that | *ˈhéʔ; *ˈse; *ˈkue; *ˈdiÀ |
| third person | *i-; *A |
| this | *ˈdi-; *ˈhíʔ |
| three | *ˈbai |
| tobacco | *ˈdu, *ˈduə̀ |
| tongue | *pkúʔ, *ˈpkuə́ |
| tooth | *ˈtu; *aˈkə |
| toucan sp. | *Biˈli |
| tray (made of wood, used to wash) | *kuˈLIʔ |
| transitive verb marker | *Bə- |
| tree | *ˈkàr; *kaˈri |
| tree, trunk of a tree, wood | *ˈkarə́ |
| tuber | *ˈtuʔ |
| turtle | *kuÌ; *uˈli |
| two | *ˈbU |
| uncle | *kəˈru |
| vulva | *ˈkÍ |
| water | *ˈdíʔ |
| we (inclusive) | *ˈsẽ́ʔ |
| weep | *ˈbo |
| what | *ˈhi |
| where | *biə |
| white | *buLu |
| wind | *ˈBur- |
| with | *uA; *tÁ |
| woodpecker | *soˈr̃o |
| woods, firewood | *ˈbUʔ |
| work | *hiBA |
| worm | *ˈgĩ́ |
| you (sg.) | *ˈbáʔ |
| yucca | *ˈik |
Proto-Chibchan horticultural vocabulary (Constenla 2012):
* *dihke 'to sow'
* *te$^1$ 'cultivated clearing'
* *ike 'manioc'
* *tuʔ 'tuber, yam' (Dioscorea spp.; Xanthosoma sagittifolium)
* *apì 'pumpkin, squash'
* *e, *ebe 'maize'
* *du, *dua$^1$ 'tobacco'
* *tã$^1$ 'rattles from gourd'
* *toka 'gourd cup'

### Pache (2018)

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018):
Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018) :
| gloss | Proto-Chibchan |
| all | *ᵐbaⁿd-; *pii-ⁿda |
| allative/dative | *ka |
| angry | *uⁿdu |
| arm, wing, shoulder | *kwik |
| armadillo | *ⁿduʔ |
| ashes | *ᵐbũⁿd(ũ) |
| aspect, imperfective | *-e |
| aspect, perfective | *-o |
| back | *ⁿda(kiⁿd) ~ *ta(kiⁿd); *ᵑga(ⁿda) |
| bad | *ᵑgwahⁿd; *saⁿd(a) |
| basket, mochila | *si |
| bat | *(ⁿdu-)ku(ⁿd) |
| to bathe, swim | *hauᵐb ~ *aᵐbuʔ |
| to be | *ⁿda(i) ~ *ta(i) |
| beam of light, heat | *ᵐbaʔ |
| beautiful | *ⁿdu |
| bee, honey | *La |
| bee, wasp | *ᵐbuⁿd(u) |
| to begin, start, first | *pahⁿd- |
| belly | *ita ~ *iⁿda ~ *iaⁿd |
| big | *ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd(i); *ᵐbu-ⁿda |
| bile, gall, bitter | *hakiʔ |
| bird, dove | *ⁿdu(ⁿd) |
| blood | *hapi ~ *apiʔ |
| to blow, fly | *kuʔ |
| body | *apa |
| bone, strong, hard | *kãⁿd- |
| bone, hard | *ⁿdaⁿdi ~ ⁿdaiⁿd- / saⁿdi ~ *saiⁿd- |
| breast, teat | *kãʔ; *ʦuʔ |
| breath, wind | *ᵐbuⁿd- |
| brother | *ⁿdaᵐba; *ⁿdaka / *saka |
| brother-in-law | *(ⁿd-)uᵐba |
| butterfly, hat | *kwahkwah |
| calabash | *ⁿdãᵐbã / *sãᵐbã; *taukaʔ |
| to catch, grasp | *ka |
| cedar | *uⁿdu |
| chicha | *ᵐba |
| chicken | *aʦa-kaⁿda |
| child | *ᵑgwaʔ |
| child, small | *ʦu |
| clay, mud | *(taBi-)ⁿda |
| cloud, fog | *ᵐba- |
| coal, hot coal | *kuⁿda |
| cold, cold substance | *ⁿdaᵐba- |
| cold | *ʦãĩh |
| to come | *ⁿda |
| comitative | *ⁿda ~ *ta; *uˈa; *ᵐba |
| to cook | *Li; *ⁿdu |
| cosmos (sky, day, time, space, earth, place) | *kaʔ(k) |
| creeping animal | *ⁿda(ⁿd) / *sa(ⁿd) |
| to dance | *kwi |
| dark | *tuⁿdi ~ *tuiⁿd |
| dative | *ia |
| diarrhea | *ᵑga-ⁿdi(a) |
| to do, make | *õ |
| dog | *tau |
| dove | *ⁿdu-ᵐba(ⁿd) |
| dry | *ⁿdiⁿda / *ⁿdisa; *puⁿd- |
| dust | *kaʔ(k)-puⁿd- |
| earth, floor, mud | *taB(a) |
| to eat | *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd |
| egg, offspring | *La |
| eight | *hap- |
| to enter | *ⁿdaʔ-u |
| excrement | *ᵑga |
| exterior | *ᵐbaⁿd(a) ~ *ᵐbat(a) |
| face | *ᵑgwa(k) |
| face, eye, fruit | *uᵐba |
| father | *ka(ka) |
| father, uncle, ancestor | *ⁿdũ(-i) |
| feather, wing, arm, hand | *ᵑgak |
| feline | *ⁿdaᵐba; *ku(ⁿd-) |
| field for cultivation | *tai |
| fireplace | *ᵑga-u (ka[k]) |
| firewood | *ᵑgi |
| fish | *ᵑgwa ~ *uᵑg |
| flea | *ᵐbak- |
| foot, root | *kihʦa ~ *kihsa |
| four | *ᵐbahka(i) |
| friend, other | *pai |
| full | *(hi-)iⁿda ~ *(hi-)ita |
| to go | *ᵐb-; *ⁿdaʔ ~ *taʔ |
| god, wind | *siᵐba |
| to grow | *kuH ~ *ᵐbuH |
| hair, head | *ʦa |
| hand | *haⁿd- ~ *hat- |
| hand, arm | *ᵑguⁿdaʔ |
| hand, finger | *kuuʔ |
| to hear | *kuh |
| heart, liver, center | *ᵐbihⁿda ~ *ᵐbihta; *taH(ᵐba) |
| to holler | *ᵐbau(ⁿd) ~ *kau(ⁿd) |
| house | *hu |
| how much, how many | *ᵐbi- |
| human being | *ᵐbaⁿdi ~ *ᵐbaiⁿd |
| hummingbird | *ᵐbiʦi ~ *ᵐbisi |
| hunger | *ᵐbaⁿdi |
| I | *ⁿdaH(ⁿd) |
| instrumental/locative | *ⁿdi |
| jealous | *ᵐbau(ⁿd) |
| to kill | *ᵑgua |
| to know | *ᵑgw- |
| lake, rain | [*ⁿdi-ɡwa] |
| to laugh | *haⁿd |
| leaf | *ka |
| lightning | *Guⁿdi ~ *GuiHⁿd |
| lip | *uk-ⁿda |
| liquid | *ⁿdiʔ-a |
| liver | *haiⁿd |
| locative | *ⁿda ~ *ta; *ki; *ʦika ~ *tsaik |
| to look for, look after | *ⁿdi |
| louse | *kũʔ |
| maize | *aiB ~ aBi |
| manioc | *i(k) |
| meat, flesh | *ᵑgaʔⁿda ~ *ᵑgaʔta; *sih |
| monkey | *huⁿdĩ ~ uⁿdĩʔ |
| moon | *siʔ |
| mosquito | *ʦuiⁿd |
| mother-in-law, daughter-in-law | *ᵑgak |
| mouth | *kah-ka |
| mouth, vagina | *ʦipi |
| name | *haka ~ *akaʔ |
| nape | *ⁿdu-kuⁿd(a) / *ⁿdu-kus(a) |
| neck | *ᵑgaⁿda |
| net | *kaⁿdaʔ |
| new | *(a-)ᵐbihⁿd- ~ *(a-)ᵐbiht- |
| night, dark | *ʦii |
| nine, ten | *uk(a) |
| nominalizer | *-ᵐba; *-ⁿd-; *-ka |
| nose | *ⁿdii(k) |
| (older) sibling, (older) sister | *ᵑgwi |
| only | *ᵐbii |
| open | *kah |
| pale | *siʔ-kwa |
| palm | *huka |
| path | *hi |
| to peel | *suʔ |
| possessed | *-i |
| post, pole | *ʦauⁿd ~ *tsuⁿda |
| pot | *hũ |
| prick, sting, point | *ⁿduk / *suk |
| pumpkin, squash | *apii(s) |
| to put | *eʔ |
| raptor | *pũʔ |
| rattle | *taʔ |
| raw | *tah(-ka) |
| red, yellow, ripe | *taʔBa |
| relational element | *ⁿd(i)-; *ʦ(i)- |
| rodent, large | *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd |
| rodent, small | *suh(-kui) |
| rope, string | *ki |
| round | *ᵐbiⁿd(i) |
| salt | *ⁿdaᵑg |
| sand | *uB(V)(-ta) |
| to scratch, rub | *ʦuH |
| to see | *su |
| seed | *ⁿduⁿd- |
| seed, fruit | *kwa |
| seven | *kuh |
| side | *suuⁿd |
| to sit (singular) | *ʦaʔ |
| six | *taiⁿd- |
| skin | *huka ~ *huBa ~ kuaʔ |
| to sleep | *kap- |
| small | *Buⁿd-; *ʦiⁿd(a) |
| smell | *Laʔ |
| snake | *takaᵐb- ~ *taᵐbak |
| soft | *ʦiⁿdi |
| son, child | *ᵑgaᵐba |
| to sow | *ⁿdihk- |
| spoon, ladle | *ʦuiⁿd ~ *ʦuⁿdi |
| to stand (singular) | *ⁿdu- |
| stick, bone, tree | *kaⁿd- ~ *kat- |
| stomach | *ⁿduaᵐbih |
| stone | *hak ~ *kaʔ |
| sun, day | *ⁿdi |
| sun, year | *ⁿdu- |
| to swallow, drink, eat | *-hu ~ *-uʔ |
| sweet potato | *Baiʔ |
| tail | *ᵐbaⁿd(a)-; *ⁿduh(k) |
| to take | *ᵑgu |
| to take out, pick up | *hapi ~ *apiʔ |
| tasty | *ᵐbaⁿd- |
| tear | *uᵐba ⁿdiʔa |
| that | *a |
| this | *hi ~ *iʔ |
| three | *ᵐbãʔ(ĩ) |
| throat | *ᵐbi-ⁿdaʔ |
| throat, hole | *kuHⁿdi ~ *kuiHⁿd ~ *BuHⁿdi |
| tobacco | *ⁿdua |
| tongue | *kuʔ(-Ba) |
| tooth (molar) | *haka |
| tooth | *ⁿduʔ |
| turkey, large galliform bird | *(ᵑg)uⁿd- |
| to turn around | *ᵐbuⁿd- ~ *kuⁿd- |
| turtle | *kwi |
| to twist | *ᵐbu |
| two | *ᵐbuuʔ |
| up, sky | *ᵐbii |
| urine | *huʦi ~ *huiʦ |
| valency-reducer | *a-; *aʔ-; *aⁿd- |
| to walk | *ⁿdai |
| to wash | *suh(k) |
| to watch | *ᵑguⁿda ~ *ᵑgwaⁿd |
| water, river | *ⁿdiʔ |
| to wear | *(ⁿd)iˈa |
| white, morning | *ᵐbuⁿd(u) |
| who, someone | *ⁿdi |
| wind | *ᵐbuⁿd-kaⁿd(a) |
| woman (adult) | *ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *ᵐbuiⁿd ~ *ᵑguⁿdi ~ *ᵑguiⁿd |
| woman (young) | *ᵐbus- |
| worm | *ᵑgi |
| wound, trace | *saⁿda |
| to wrap | *ᵐbaʔk |
| you | *ᵐbaʔ |
| young, sprout | *pu |