# Trịnh Kiểm

Trịnh Kiểm (1503–1570) posthumously titled Thế Tổ Minh Khang Thái Vương (世祖明康太王), was an influential political and military figure of Đại Việt during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. In name, he served as a supporter of the Revival Lê dynasty emperors, but in reality, he was the actual leader of the Southern Dynasty from 1545 until his death. Though his highest title during his lifetime was Thái Quốc Công (Grand Duke of the State), he is often regarded as the first Chúa (Lord) of the Trịnh family. He established his family as hereditary governors of Vietnam, ruling in the name of the figurehead Later Lê emperors.
Trịnh Kiểm was born into a poor family in Vĩnh Lộc now known as modern day Thanh Hoa. He was known for his bravery and ability to attract talented individuals. During his youth, he witnessed the Mạc Dynasty usurp the Lê throne, leading him to join Grand Duke Nguyễn Kim in raising an army against the Mạc, supporting Lê Trang Tông as emperor in Ai Lao (modern-day Laos). Recognizing Trịnh Kiểm’s exceptional strength and strategic abilities, Nguyễn Kim married his daughter, Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Bảo, to him, entrusted him with military command, and promoted him to the title Dực Nghĩa Hầu (Marquis). Trịnh Kiểm achieved numerous victories against the Mạc forces. Emperor Lê Trang Tông also trusted him deeply, promoting him to Đại tướng quân (Grand General) with the noble title Dực Quận Công (Grand Duke), in 1539 when he was 37 years old.
After his father-in-law Nguyễn Kim’s death in 1545, Trịnh Kiểm took over leadership of the government and military of the Lê Dynasty for nearly 30 years, serving under three Lê emperors: Lê Trang Tông, Lê Trung Tông, and Lê Anh Tông. He played a major role in organizing the Southern Dynasty’s government through key decisions such as establishing his headquarters in Vạn Lại, holding civil service examinations in Confucian studies, strengthening the military, recruiting talented individuals, repelling Mạc invasions in Thanh Hoa and Nghệ An–, reclaiming Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam from Mạc control, and launching major northern campaigns. Although he did not achieve a decisive victory over the Mạc, Trịnh Kiểm laid the foundation for his descendants to complete the restoration of the Lê Dynasty, reclaim Đông Kinh (modern-day Hanoi), and establish the long-lasting Lê-Trịnh era in Vietnamese medieval history. Although he was the de facto ruler of Vietnam during his lifetime, he never assumed a higher position for himself. When he died, his son Trịnh Tùng declared himself a lord and conferred this title posthumously upon his dead father.

## Early life

Trịnh Kiểm’s childhood name was Trịnh Phiến (鄭𭪤), later changed to Kiểm. He was born on September 14, 1503, during the Cảnh Thống era of Emperor Lê Hiến Tông. Trịnh Kiểm claimed descent from Trịnh Khả, who was one of Lê Lợi's closest allies and later regent during the reign of child-king Lê Nhân Tông. His birthplace was his mother’s village—Hổ village, Vệ Quốc commune, Yên Định district, Thanh Hoa province. It was said that when he was born, a red light filled the entire room, astonishing the villagers. From a young age, he was known to be intelligent and very different from other children. He was the third of seven siblings, 4 boys and 2 girls. When Trịnh Kiểm was six years old, his father passed away. This caused his family’s situation to deteriorate, and they faced disdain and discrimination from other villagers. As a result, he and his mother had to relocate to their ancestral home in Sóc Sơn village.
To survive, Trịnh Kiểm worked as a buffalo herder in the Lệ Sơn mountains. While tending the buffalo, he often gathered groups of other village children, where they stole chickens and ducks for food, and played war games—using the buffalo as war elephants, reeds as banners, and organizing formations. When playing war games, Trịnh Kiểm and the village boys would arm themselves with knives and salt, then steal a buffalo from the Đầu Voi area in Yên Việt. One day, a villager gathering firewood came across the scene and reported it. All the children fled except for Trịnh Kiểm, who remained seated. When questioned, he calmly replied:
   “This buffalo broke its leg, so I killed it for food!”
The villagers then accused him of theft, dragged him to the village hall for punishment, and debated whether to drown him to death in the river or report him to the authorities. Ultimately, the village head decided to expel him and his mother from ever returning.
After being expelled, Trịnh Kiểm moved to Bồ Xuyên village in Yên Mô district. At the age of 24 (1526), he married a woman from the Trần family, whose name is recorded as Ngọc Lĩnh. He lived with her in Bồ Xuyên, but historical records do not provide further details about her fate.

## Working as a retainer and his Mother’s execution

In 1527, Dai Viet was in chaos. The ruling Lê dynasty had been overthrown by Mạc Đăng Dung, a former general who seized the throne. Many loyalists of the Lê dynasty refused to accept this change and fled to organize resistance movements. Among them was Nguyễn Kim, a powerful noble who retreated to the remote region of Cổ Lũng (modern-day Cẩm Thủy District) to plan an uprising against the Mạc, advanced his troops. At the same time, a Mạc general named Ninh Bang Hầu established his base in Vĩnh Ninh (Modern day Vĩnh Lộc). His army controlled the surrounding regions, ensuring they’re retain their loyalty to the new Mạc rulers. Trịnh Kiểm and his mother sought refuge under Ninh Bang Hầu, hoping for stability and a better life. His mother personally begged the general to take her son into service as a household retainer, pleased with his spirit, he agreed. He assigned Trịnh Kiểm to oversee the farming estates in Thọ Liêu hamlet, where he was responsible for raising livestock, including buffaloes and horses. During his daily routine, Trịnh Kiểm befriended a Cham man who also worked in the estate named Vũ Thì An, who was an expert in training horses. Under his guidance, Trịnh Kiểm learned how to recognize and train superior horses, a skill that greatly helped him in the future.:
Dissatisfied with his role and realizing that he had no real future of progression, one day Trịnh Kiểm stole the best horse from his master’s stables and fled. Riding at full speed, he crossed the border into Mường Sùng Cổ Lũng (modern-day Bá Thước), which was then part of Ai Lao (Laos) where he intended to join a cousin Trịnh Quang, who was already fighting under the army of Nguyễn Kim’s against the Mạc dynasty. Due to going hastily, he arranged plans for his mother to reunite with him. His mother, however, who was left behind, fled back to their home village of Vệ Quốc knowing Ninh Bang Hau would be sworn with vengeance for this offense from a commoner. When Ninh Bang Hầu discovered that Trịnh Kiểm had stolen his horse and fled, he felt betrayed and enraged. He ordered his soldiers and the villagers of Sóc Sơn and Biện Thượng to hunt down Trịnh Kiểm and his mother no matter what, offering rewards for their capture. After an extensive search, they only managed to capture his mother. Ninh Bang Hầu gave her an ultimatum.
   ”I will let you go if you find and bring your son Trịnh Kiểm and my horse. If you fail, you will not be spared.’”
After searching, his mother located Trịnh Kiểm where she decided they needed to go into hiding. They hid at her brother’s house in Biện Thượng. However, when the village chief discovered them, much to their surprise, instead of turning him in, feeling pity, he chose to help Trịnh Kiểm. One night seeing an good opportunity, he threw a rock which signaled for him to escape. Trịnh Kiểm quickly crawled through several layers of fences then fled to the home of a man named Nữu in Yên Định. Nữu concealed Trịnh Kiểm by digging into a large grain bin and covering him with rice where he was to be transported out the region. When Trịnh Kiểm later in life rose to power, Nữu had already passed away. In gratitude for his past kindness, Trịnh Kiểm rewarded Nữu’s family with money for ancestral offerings and daily expenses. Despite these efforts, the villagers eventually recaptured Trịnh Kiểm’s mother and handed her over to Ninh Bang Hầu. Three days later, he forced the village of Sóc Sơn to place her in a bamboo cage, weigh it down with a large rock, and throw it into the river. Trịnh Kiểm’s close friend from the estate, Vũ Thì An, learned of the execution and immediately sent his son, Vũ Đình Tùng, to inform Trịnh Kiểm. At first, Trịnh Kiểm feared it was a trap, but when he realized the truth, he was devastated. Overcome with grief, he wept and swore:
   “How could my fellow villagers be so heartless and betray me like this? If I ever build a great kingdom, I swear never to return to my old village.”
He then turned to Vũ Đình Tùng and said:
   “Your father and I are as close as brothers. If you can recover my mother’s body and bury her in a safe place, I will repay you beyond your wildest dreams.”
Early one morning, a fisherman named Mai, who had moved from Đông Biện to Ngạn Thượng, spotted a body floating in the river. He went home to fetch a hoe to bury it, but when he returned, he saw something mysterious—a swarm of termites had gathered around the corpse, forming what looked like a burial mound. Word of this reached Trịnh Kiểm, who—along with his cousin Trịnh Quáng and loyal friends Trịnh Bá Di and Vũ Thì An—retrieved his mother’s body and performed funeral rites. Fearing that Mạc soldiers would desecrate her grave, he had Vũ Thì An and his son wrap the body in a mat and secretly transport it through the Đường Cán Mountains to a hidden burial site in Đồng Rạng (Yên Việt Village).

## Following Nguyễn Kim, Military Career

After Mạc Đăng Dung usurped the throne, the descendants of Lê dynasty officials and loyal members, especially those from Thanh Hoa, refused to accept his rule and continuously rebelled. Nguyen Kim—a noble from a prestigious family that had served the Lê dynasty for generations—fled to Ai Lao (modern-day Laos) to gather troops and plan the restoration of the Lê dynasty. By 1533, Nguyễn Kim placed the son of Emperor Lê Chiêu Tông on the throne, naming him Lê Trang Tông. The new emperor granted Nguyễn Kim the title Thái sư Hưng Quốc Công (Grand Mentor Duke). This marked the beginning of the conflict between the Southern Court (Lê-Nguyễn forces) and the Northern Court (Mạc dynasty).
At first, Nguyễn Kim stationed his forces in Mường Sùng, a region in Ai Lao. During this time, Trịnh Kiểm joined Nguyễn Kim’s army and was a rising warrior. One night, Nguyễn Kim noticed two bright red stars hovering above the place where Trịnh Kiểm was sleeping. Curious, he approached and saw that Trịnh Kiểm’s face was glowing like a torch, with an aura of light shining from his eyes. Amazed, Nguyễn Kim summoned him and began questioning him. Seeing that Trịnh Kiểm was articulate, intelligent, and exceptionally courageous, Nguyễn Kim quickly recognized his potential. From that day on, Nguyễn Kim appointed Trịnh Kiểm as Tri Mã Cơ a (Commander of the Cavalry), placing him in charge of the military’s horses. Later, he entrusted Trịnh Kiểm with leading troops into battle. Trịnh Kiểm and his forces stationed themselves in Vạn Lại and achieved a great victory against the Mạc army. Nguyễn Kim, increasingly impressed by Trịnh Kiểm’s talents, entrusted him with even more responsibilities. Eventually, he gave Trịnh Kiểm his daughter, Ngọc Bảo, in marriage.
According to “History of the Kingdom of Đàng Ngoài” by Alexandre de Rhodes, when Mạc forces launched a massive attack on the capital, Nguyễn Kim and his army found themselves trapped in an enemy siege. In desperation, Nguyễn Kim made a promise:
“I will marry my daughter to whoever can break through the enemy lines and rescue me and my troops.”
Trịnh Kiểm mounted his horse and charged fearlessly into battle, cutting down enemy soldiers and opening a path for Nguyễn Kim’s army to escape. Keeping his word, Nguyễn Kim married his daughter Ngọc Bảo to Trịnh Kiểm and assigned him more important military duties, especially the training of cavalry for the resistance forces. In 1539, Trịnh Kiểm was assigned to escort Emperor Lê Trang Tông back to Vietnam from Ai Lao. Having heard of Trịnh Kiểm’s extraordinary prowess and commanding presence, Lê Trang Tông promoted him to Đại Tướng Quân (Grand General) and granted him the title Dực Quận Công (Duke). At that time, Trịnh Kiểm was 37 years old. The emperor viewed him as a trusted general, granting him the military seal and placing him in charge of battles against the Mạc dynasty in Thanh Hoa Province. Trịnh Kiểm later secured a major victory against the Mạc forces at Lôi Dương.
After these successes, Trịnh Kiểm returned to his hometown to hold a grand banquet and pay respects to his ancestors. Quốc Công Lại Thế Vinh, the elder brother of his second wife Lại Ngọc Trân, gifted him lands in Yên Hoằng Commune to build a residence and military base. In 1540, Nguyễn Kim led his army to Nghệ An, expanding their influence. His growing reputation caused many local forces to surrender without resistance. The following year (1541), Mạc Đăng Dung died. Seizing the opportunity, Nguyễn Kim’s forces launched an offensive, capturing Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An. By 1543, they had successfully recaptured Tây Đô (modern-day Thanh Hóa Province) from the Mạc dynasty.

## The Assassination of Nguyễn Kim and The Reigns of Power

In 1545, a former general of the Mạc dynasty, Dương Chấp Nhất, poisoned Nguyễn Kim, killing him. Before his death, Nguyễn Kim entrusted full military command to Trịnh Kiểm because his two sons, Nguyễn Uông and Nguyễn Hoàng, were still too young to lead. With Nguyễn Kim’s passing, all military power of the Lê dynasty fell into the hands of Trịnh Kiểm.
Later that year, in August of the lunar calendar, Mạc Phúc Hải, the emperor of the Northern Court, ordered Thái Tể Ninh Quốc Công Mạc Phúc Tư to launch a surprise attack on Lê Trang Tông’s headquarters. As Mạc forces advanced to the Phù Chẩn River, Lê Trang Tông personally led his army to face them. Trịnh Kiểm, serving as Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Army, led the vanguard forces. Trịnh Kiểm’s army crushed the Mạc forces, killing a massive number of enemy soldiers. Ninh Quốc Công fled back to the north in defeat. Later that year (1545), Emperor Lê Trang Tông granted Trịnh Kiểm an even higher title:
   “Đô Tướng Tiết Chế Các Dinh Quân Thủy Bộ Các Xứ Kiêm Tổng Nội Ngoại Bình Chương Quân Quốc Trọng Sự” (The Supreme Commander of All Land and Naval Forces, Grand Minister of State Affairs).
He was also granted the noble rank of Thái Sư (Grand Mentor) and the title Lượng Quốc Công (Duke of Lượng).
From that point onward, Trịnh Kiểm held absolute control over the Lê dynasty’s military and political affairs. Even though Emperor Lê Trang Tông remained on the throne, all important decisions—such as military campaigns and government appointments—were made by Trịnh Kiểm first, and the emperor would only approve them afterward. This marked the beginning of Trịnh Kiểm’s dominance over Vietnam, eventually leading to the establishment of the Trịnh Lords, who were the real rulers of Dai Viet for the next two centuries.

## Pillar of the Southern Court, Manipulating Power

In 1546, Trịnh Kiểm withdrew his troops to Thanh Hóa, established a temporary royal court for Lê Trang Tông in Vạn Lại, and began recruiting heroes and skilled warriors, training soldiers, stockpiling provisions, and strategizing for battles against the Mạc dynasty. At this time, Đại Việt was divided into two regions: from Thanh Hóa southward was under the rule of the Lê dynasty, commanded by Trịnh Kiểm; from Sơn Nam northward belonged to the Mạc dynasty, known as the Northern Court. Whenever military campaigns were launched, Trịnh Kiểm led them and was victorious wherever he fought. As a result, many warriors seeking glory, honor, prestige, from Hoan and Diễn (Nghệ An, Ô (Thừa Thiên, Huế), and Quảng (Quảng Nam, Đà Nẵng) flocked to join him, including notable figures such as Phùng Khắc Khoan, Lương Hữu Khánh, Đinh Bạt Tuỵ, Nguyễn Khải Khang, Nguyễn Thiến, and Lê Khắc Thận. The land of Ái Châu (Thanh Hóa) gradually stabilized.
During the reign of Lê Thái Tổ the country was divided into five military districts: The Eastern District, Southern District, Western District, Northern District, and Hải Tây District. By the time of Lê Thánh Tông, the country was reorganized into 13 administrative provinces. When Mạc Đăng Dung usurped the Lê throne, the entire country fell under Mạc rule, except for 11 military districts in Tuyên Quang, which were controlled by Vũ Văn Mật. Later, when Nguyễn Kim launched his campaign, he first captured Ái Châu (Thanh Hóa) and gradually took control of the southern territories, including Châu Hoan, Diễn, and Ô Lý (Nghệ An, Thuận Hóa). This resulted in Vietnam being divided into two rival dynasties, the Mạc and the Lê Restoration. Tuyên Quang, under the leadership of Vũ Văn Mật, pledged allegiance to the Lê-Trịnh faction.
According to The History of the Kingdom of Đàng Ngoài, all power was in the hands of Trịnh Kiểm, while the emperor had no real authority:
   “In reality, he (Trịnh Kiểm) intended to restore the lost provinces, but not to return them to the emperor—a ruler whom he considered incapable of governing, weak, untalented, and indulgent. Instead, he sought to claim them for himself and his descendants. Because he was highly knowledgeable in state affairs, respected and admired. The emperor trusted him and granted him authority not only over the military but over all matters of governance. Thus, all military command was placed in his hands, and all affairs—whether war or peace—were entirely under his control. As a result, due to military and customary power, the emperor had no real authority, holding only the title of king, while all armed forces and governance rested in the hands of the general.” — Alexandre de Rhodes
In 1556, Emperor Trung Tông passed away without an heir. At that time, the main Lê royal bloodline had ended, prompting royal officials to discuss the matter. Some suggested selecting a descendant from the emperor’s maternal family, while others insisted that the throne should remain within the Lê paternal bloodline. Trịnh Kiểm then ordered a search for Lê descendants, eventually finding Lê Duy Bang, a fourth-generation descendant of Lê Trừ (the elder brother of Lê Thái Tổ), who was living in the village of Bố Vệ, in Đông Sơn. Trịnh Kiểm brought him back and enthroned him as Lê Anh Tông. During Trịnh Kiểm’s rule, the Lê Restoration Court only held two Confucian scholar examinations 1554 and 1565. Regarding the military system, Trịnh Kiểm maintained the previous military structure, establishing five Đô đốc military commands and organizing troops into five military camps, each with different ranks and divisions. However, recruitment was limited to soldiers from Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An only.

## The Pacification of Thuận Quảng

In 1554, Trịnh Kiểm moved King Lê’s temporary court to Biện Thượng. Seeing an opportunity with morale high, he ordered his generals to launch a military campaign to reclaim Hóa Châu in the south. This region was controlled by a Mạc general, Hoàng Bôi. The Southern Court’s army defeated and killed Hoàng Bôi, securing control over Hóa Châu, which included the provinces of Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam. Afterward, Grand Chancellor Trịnh Kiểm appointed local leaders and officials to restore order, ensuring stability in the newly reclaimed lands.
By October 1558, Trịnh Kiểm proposed a long-term strategy to King Anh Tông. He believed securing the southern region would allow him to focus entirely on defeating the Mạc dynasty in the north. In his petition, he argued that Thuận Hóa was a crucial military stronghold with a resilient population and abundant resources. He recommended appointing Nguyễn Hoàng, a capable and level-headed leader, as the governor of the region. The king agreed, granting Nguyễn Hoàng full control over Thuận Hóa, except for the requirement to send annual taxes to the royal court. From this point on, Nguyễn Hoàng worked alongside Bùi Tá Hán, the governor of Quảng Nam, to defend the southeastern frontier of the Lê dynasty’s stronghold.
   “The region of Thuận Hóa is a reservoir of elite soldiers. In the early days of our dynasty, we relied on the people of this region to suppress the Wu invaders. This land is mountainous and rugged, its people strong and resolute, and it possesses abundant resources from both the forests and the sea. It is a vital region without equal. It has taken decades of military efforts to reclaim it. Thus, we must protect it at all costs and make it a solid defensive barrier…
   I have observed that Nguyễn Hoàng, is a composed and determined man, possessing both strategy and leadership. He is tolerant and humble with his soldiers. I propose appointing him as the regional governor to maintain order at the frontier, defend against northern invaders, and coordinate with Trấn Quận Công in Quảng Nam to reinforce each other…”
   — Trịnh Kiểm
In March 1568, Bùi Tá Hán passed away, and Trịnh Kiểm appointed Nguyễn Bá Quýnh, a general from Nghệ An, to take his place as the region’s military commander. By 1569, King Lê Anh Tông formally recognized Trịnh Kiểm’s power, bestowing upon him the titles of Supreme General and Grand Duke, as well as the honorary title Supreme Father of the kingdom. By this time, Trịnh Kiểm’s influence had completely overshadowed the royal court. Though he had not yet recaptured the capital, his leadership was instrumental in restoring the Lê dynasty. His growing power also marked the beginning of the Trịnh family’s rule as hereditary warlords (Chúa).
Later that year, Nguyễn Hoàng traveled from Thuận Hóa to Thanh Hoa to visit the king and pay respects to Trịnh Kiểm. Their meeting was warm and friendly, with Trịnh Kiểm advising him:
   “The kingdom has entrusted you with a great responsibility. You must remain loyal and continue to dedicate yourself fully to protecting the dynasty.”

## Succession

In 1569, in failing health, Trịnh Kiểm passed power to his eldest son, Trịnh Coi. In 1570, Trịnh Kiểm died. In the same year, Trịnh Coi was defeated by a Mạc army and was replaced by his younger, more capable brother, Trịnh Tùng.