# Wilhelm Solheim

Wilhelm G. Solheim II (1924–2014) was an American anthropologist recognized as the most senior practitioner of archaeology in Southeast Asia and as a pioneer in the study of Philippine and Southeast Asian prehistoric archaeology. He is perhaps best known for hypothesizing the existence of the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network, one of two dominant hypotheses regarding the peopling of the Asia-Pacific region during the Neolithic age.

## Life and education

Wilhelm 'Bill' Gerhard Solheim II was born on the 19th of November 1924 in Champaign, Illinois. He entered the University of Wyoming in 1941, with Mathematics as his major and Physics as his minor. In 1943 he joined the US Air Force to train as a meteorologist. He spent his Air Force years stationed in Casablanca, central coastal Africa, and Germany. In 1947, Bill returned to the US to finish his BA degree in mathematics in 1947. Three months after he finished his undergraduate degree, he pursued a Master of Arts degree in anthropology at University of California-Berkeley.
Bill once said that his interest in Southeast Asia began in his youth, after having watched the young Indian actor Sabu in the British adventure film "The Elephant Boy" (1937). Entranced by the jungles, the elephants, the cobras, and cave treasures, he viewed that Indian part of Monsoon Asia as indistinguishable from the jungles around Angkor: "Immediately when I saw that I told myself that is where I want to do my archaeology" (p.c., 5/29/2003). Sabu's South Asian lands lay west of the region where Bill would spend his career, but was linked in climate and, in some respects, culture, to mainland Southeast Asia.
With MA in hand, Bill Solheim arrived in the Philippines for the first time on November 30, 1949; Dr. H. Otley Beyer (Doyen of Philippine Anthropology and Archaeology): quickly took Bill under his wing. In Bill's three subsequent years living in the Philippines, he worked in 1950 at Calatagan (Batangas): and in May 1951 in western Masbate (including work at Kalanay Cave site) . Bill took Beyer's classes and got field excavation experience in Luzon. Following advice from Fred Eggan (University of Chicago): Bill began his PhD degree in 1954 at the University of Arizona, and used the Kalanay (Masbate Island, Philippines) assemblage for his doctoral thesis under the advising of Dr. Emil Haury, one of the leading Southwestern archaeologists at the time. While most of his work concentrated in Southeast Asia, Bill also worked on Pacific collections (Gifford's Fijian ceramics at Berkeley, field survey and excavations near Bird's Head, West Papua [1976, 1998]) and gained some North American Paleoindian experience as Haury's PhD student. Bill's doctoral research on collections from the central Philippines developed into a lifelong interest in connections between the Visayas (central Philippines) and the Sa Huynh culture (central Vietnam). Bill completed his PhD at the University of Arizona in 1959, and joined Florida State University in 1960. Bill moved to the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa Department of Anthropology in 1961.
Solheim continued with his work as an archaeologist and professor. He advised many graduate students at UHM, worked in a Quonset hut from 1961 to 1970, and then moved to Dean Hall. Solheim's students worked in the Pacific and Asia. Some of his Pacific archaeology PhD's include Paul Rosendahl, Paul Cleghorn. His Southeast Asian archaeology students included Chester Gorman, Karl Hutterer, Donn Bayard, Jean Kennedy, S. Jane Allen, David Welch, and Judy McNeill, all of whom have made significant contributions to the region. He also worked closely with Southeast and South Asian colleagues, and welcome interaction from students and faculty throughout the region. Solheim's legacy rests as much in his service to his field as it does in his research contributions. While still a doctoral student, Bill began the journal Asian Perspectives in 1957, and served as its editor-in-chief for nearly three decades. Solheim forged important ties with researchers working across Asia, and became close friends with both western and Southeast Asia-based archaeologists in several countries. He was one of only three trained archaeologists that Tom Harrisson ever invited to his Niah Cave excavations, and he stayed three days (Solheim 1977:33). Solheim helped revive the Far Eastern Prehistory Association in 1953, and transformed it into the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association in 1976 and served as its first President from 1976 to 1980.
He retired from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa in 1991, and joined the Archaeological Studies Program (University of the Philippines) in 1997.
After his retirement he became emeritus Professor at the Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Solheim was a Founding Fellow of the Philippine Association for the Advancement of Science, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
After the establishment of the Archaeological Studies Program at the University of the Philippines in 1995, Solheim shipped his entire academic book collection to the program. During the mid-1990s, he founded a research station at the site of Ille Rockshelter and Cave in northern Palawan. In 2003, the Solheim Foundation was established to promote archaeology in the Philippines.
Solheim and his wife Dolorlina 'Nene' Solheim built their permanent residence in El Nido, near Ille Cave. He remained in the Philippines with his wife until his death. He died on July 25, 2014, at the age of 89.

## Works in Southeast Asia

Solheim began his career in Pacific and Southeast Asian prehistory as a graduate student at Berkeley. His first experience was his study of E.W. Gifford's pottery from Fiji, in which under Gifford's direction, he made a refined classification in preparation for his two-part Master's thesis in Oceanian Pottery published in 1952.
From 1963 to 1966, Solheim directed the Non Nok Tha field program, a joint project of the University of Hawaii and the Fine Arts Department of Thailand, which published two reports in 1968 presenting new information on the Bronze Age in Southeast Asia.
In 1975, Solheim propositioned a new chronological framework for stages in Southeast Asian culture. The detailed framework consisted of the Lithic Stage, The Lignic Period, the Crystallitic Period, the Extensionistic Period, and the Period of Conflicting Empires.
One of Solheim's most impactful contributions to Pacific-Asian Archaeology is the establishment of the periodical Asian Perspectives (1957), published by the University of Hawaii Press, of which the first two issues were edited by Beverly H. Solheim, Mary Elizabeth Shutler, and Richard Shutler Jr. The journal became a valuable and well-received source for Southeast Asian and Pacific archaeological studies.

### Nusantao hypothesis

After several years of research in Southeast Asian prehistory, Solheim presented his Nusantao Hypothesis in 1975, a condensation of his endeavors regarding Austronesian homeland discussions.
Solheim described his hypothesis as "an attempt to present a framework for the cultural history of the Austronesian speaking peoples" and as an alternative to the traditional framework by Robert Heine-Geldern (1932). Solheim's proposition was that "the homeland of the Nusantao is in the islands of the southern Philippines and eastern Indonesia" (Solheim 1975, 112). In his description, according to their position in time and geography, the Nusantao were "boat people". He believes that most of the pottery found in Southeast Asia and the Pacific can be traced back to Mainland Southeast Asian Hoabinhian origins—from Lapita in Melanesia to the early pottery of Micronesia (2001, 1). Solheim also considers that some pottery from Melanesia and Micronesia originated from Japan (1968). In 2002, Solheim labeled these groups part of his Nusantao Maritime Trade and Communication Network, characterized by their emergence from island and coastal mainland Southeast Asia.

## Works in the Philippines

Solheim's first and real archaeological sojourn on record was in the Philippines. He arrived in the Philippines by boat in 1949 and was met at the Manila piers by H. Otley Beyer, an American anthropologist.

### Archaeological activities

In 1950, Solheim excavated for a month a jar burial site in San Narciso, Tayabas (now Quezon) in the Bondoc Peninsula.
In 1952, Solheim did an archaeological survey of Fuga Island, one of the Babuyan Islands, where he discovered several burial jar sites. The following year, he excavated a burial jar on Batan Island in Batanes. The excavations resulted in an article summarizing burial jars in Island Southeast Asia (Solheim 1960).
From 1951 to 1953, Solheim conducted surveys and excavations on Masbate Island and was put in charge of a field class in archaeology by Beyer. Several caves and rockshelters were excavated and tested by him, but the most famous of which was the Kalanay Cave site. From one of the sites in Masbate came the first 14C dating in the Philippines. The data generated from these were collated with earlier collected archaeological materials by Carl Guthe resulting in The Archaeology of Central Philippines: A Study Chiefly of the Iron Age and Its Relationships (Solheim 1964).
Solheim led an archaeological exploration of the southeastern coast of Mindanao Island in 1972 with the assistance of Avelino Legaspi of the National Museum and Jaime S. Neri, an archaeology student at the East West Center in Hawaii. This was the first intensive archaeological work in the second largest island in the Philippines. Sites, such as the Talikud Island rockshelter site, were found to contain flaked shells and stone tools.

### Refining the chronology and evolution of Philippine prehistory

In 1980, Solheim, a distinguished archaeologist renowned for his profound insights into Philippine and Southeast Asian archaeology, introduced a groundbreaking framework that redefined the periodization of Philippine prehistory. Drawing upon his extensive expertise, Solheim's innovative reconstruction divides this rich historical tapestry into four distinct periods, shedding new light on the evolution of this vibrant archipelago:
The first inhabitants of the Philippine islands established themselves, and their lifestyles revolved around hunting, gathering, and rudimentary forms of agriculture. This period offers a glimpse into the rudimentary societal structures and practices that laid the foundation for the Filipino culture. As time progressed, the inhabitants of the Philippines began to refine their agricultural techniques, paving the way for more settled communities. This era is marked by the emergence of distinct cultural practices and the development of basic pottery, reflecting the growing complexity of their society.
During this transformative period, the Filipino communities witnessed significant advancements. Agricultural practices became more sophisticated, leading to surplus food production and population growth. Trade networks expanded, enabling the exchange of goods across the archipelago and beyond. The artistic expression and craftsmanship of this era are evident in intricate pottery and artifacts, providing valuable insights into the cultural and technological achievements of the time.
The Established Filipino era. from 500 AD to 1521, was an era that marked a pivotal moment in Philippine prehistory as the islands were introduced to external influences through trade and contact with neighboring cultures. The arrival of the Spanish in 1521 signaled the beginning of recorded history in the Philippines, fundamentally altering the trajectory of Filipino society and culture.
Solheim's comprehensive periodization framework not only enhances our understanding of Philippine prehistory but also underscores the dynamic and diverse journey of the Filipino people, spanning millennia of development and evolution.

### Pottery training courses

"Elevating Pottery Education" represents a concerted effort to advance the art of pottery through comprehensive and hands-on training programs. These courses delve deeply into the artistry and craftsmanship of pottery, catering to enthusiasts, aspiring potters, and artists seeking to hone their skills.
These courses encompass a wide spectrum of pottery techniques and traditions, providing participants with a rich and immersive experience. From fundamental pottery skills such as wheel throwing and hand-building to more specialized topics like glazing and firing, participants gain a holistic understanding of this ancient craft. Additionally, courses often explore the historical and cultural significance of pottery across different regions and time periods, fostering a deeper appreciation for the art form.
Moreover, these training programs frequently feature accomplished instructors, many of whom are master potters with decades of experience. Their expertise not only imparts technical proficiency but also shares the passion and artistry that make pottery a vibrant and enduring form of creative expression. Through "Elevating Pottery Education," participants embark on a journey of discovery, where clay and creativity come together to shape beautiful and culturally significant works of art.
This comprehensive course was structured into three distinct phases, each designed to provide participants with a holistic understanding of pottery craft.
The SEAMEO-SPAFA Training Course in Pottery, co-directed by Solheim and Ranquillo in 1982, reflected their commitment to preserving and propagating traditional craftsmanship. This initiative not only served as a platform for skill acquisition but also fostered cultural exchange and appreciation. Participants not only learned the techniques and intricacies of pottery-making but also had the unique opportunity to interact with local artisans in Vigan, gaining insight into the rich cultural heritage embedded within the art form. This cultural immersion added depth to the training, highlighting the interplay between pottery and the diverse cultures of the Philippines.
During the course, participants were first immersed in formal lectures, where they gained valuable theoretical knowledge. Subsequently, they delved into the practical aspect of pottery-making through hands-on training. This hands-on experience was conducted under the expert guidance of Solheim's wife, Ludy, a seasoned potter and a renowned pottery-making instructor based in Hawaii.
The culmination of the training involved an enriching immersion experience in a pottery-making village located in Vigan, Ilocos Sur. This immersive phase allowed participants to apply their newfound skills and insights in a real-world setting, further enhancing their proficiency and appreciation for the art of pottery. Solheim and Ranquillo's collaborative efforts in organizing this course contributed significantly to the promotion and preservation of pottery-making traditions in the region.
Furthermore, Ludy Solheim's pivotal role as the hands-on training leader was emblematic of the collaborative spirit within the Solheim family and their dedication to sharing their expertise. Her expertise as an adept potter and instructor enriched the course, ensuring that participants received top-notch training under her tutelage. Beyond the technical aspects of pottery, Ludy's instruction likely infused the training with a profound appreciation for the art's historical and cultural significance.
The SEAMEO-SPAFA Training Course in Pottery, with its multi-faceted approach and commitment to cultural preservation, left an enduring impact on both participants and the broader community. It stands as a testament to the Solheim family's dedication to archaeological education and cultural heritage conservation in the Philippines and Southeast Asia.

### Archaeological Studies Program

As of August 24, 1995, the Archaeological Studies Program (ASP) was formally established at the University of the Philippines, Diliman Campus. Notably, starting in 1997, Professor Wilhelm G. Solheim II, in collaboration with Professor Alfred Pawlik, played an active role in instructing postgraduate studies within the ASP, which encompassed comprehensive archaeological field activities. Their contributions to the field were recognized with the prestigious title of Honorary Researchers of the National Museum.
Of particular significance, Wilhelm G. Solheim II demonstrated his commitment to the program by generously bequeathing his entire personal library to the ASP. This extraordinary collection comprises numerous books, journals, bulletins, and other vital publications, spanning more than five decades of archaeological research in the Philippines, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. These resources not only showcase Wilhelm Solheim's extensive work but also encapsulate the collective knowledge and expertise of his contemporaries in the field.
Philippines' Diliman Campus in 1995 marked a significant milestone in the advancement of archaeological education and research in the Philippines. Under the leadership and guidance of Professor Wilhelm G. Solheim II and Professor Alfred Pawlik, the ASP rapidly gained recognition for its dedication to postgraduate studies and hands-on archaeological fieldwork.
Professor Wilhelm G. Solheim II's active involvement in the ASP not only encompassed teaching but also included his invaluable contributions to archaeological research in the region. His collaborative efforts with Professor Pawlik and their rank as Honorary Researchers of the National Museum underscore the depth of their commitment to advancing Philippine archaeology.
One of the most remarkable gestures of Professor Solheim's commitment to the field was his generous donation of his extensive personal library to the ASP. This library, consisting of thousands of books, journals, bulletins, and publications, has become an invaluable resource for students and researchers alike. It serves as a treasure trove of knowledge spanning more than half a century of archaeological exploration, providing insight into the evolution of archaeological thought and practice in the Philippines, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific.
The enduring legacy of Professor Solheim's contributions, in tandem with the dedicated work of the ASP, continues to shape the landscape of archaeology in the Philippines, fostering a vibrant academic environment that facilitates both learning and the preservation of the nation's rich cultural heritage. This collaborative effort has not only enriched our understanding of the past but also serves as an inspiration for future generations of archaeologists.

### Solheim Foundation

The Wilhelm G. Solheim II Foundation for Philippine Archaeology, Inc. came into existence in 2003, founded by a consortium of individuals hailing from the University of the Philippines, the National Museum of the Philippines, and esteemed international scholars. Alfred F. Pawlik currently presides as its president. In partnership with the University of the Philippines' Archaeological Studies Program, the Foundation is dedicated to nurturing the growth and prominence of archaeology within the Philippines.
The Solheim Foundation stands as a testament to the enduring commitment to preserving and uncovering the rich archaeological heritage of the Philippines. Its collaborative efforts, bridging both local and international scholars, have played a pivotal role in advancing archaeological research and exploration across the archipelago.
Through various initiatives and partnerships, the Foundation has supported archaeological projects, excavation endeavors, and educational programs, contributing significantly to our understanding of the Philippines' deep-rooted history and cultural evolution. With a mission deeply rooted in the spirit of discovery, it continues to pave the way for new generations of archaeologists and researchers to delve into the mysteries of the Philippines' prehistoric past.
Under the leadership of Alfred F. Pawlik, the Solheim Foundation remains steadfast in its dedication to nurturing the field of archaeology in the Philippines, ensuring that the nation's rich and diverse cultural heritage is both celebrated and preserved for future generations to explore and appreciate.

## Selected works

* Casino, Eric S., George R. Ellis, Wilhelm G. Solheim II, Father Gabriel Casal and Regalado Trota Jose, People and Art of the Philippines, Museum of Cultural History, University of California, Los Angeles, 1962.
* Solheim, Wilhelm G. Archaeology of central Philippines : a study chiefly of the Iron Age and its relationships, Manila : National Science Development Board, National Institute of Science and Technology, 1964.
* Solheim, Wilhelm G. (editor). Anthropology at the Eighth Pacific Science Congress of the Pacific Science Association and the Fourth Far Eastern Pre-history Congress, Quezon City, Philippines, 1953, Honolulu, Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii, 1968.
* Solheim, Wilhelm G. Archaeological survey to investigate Southeast Asian prehistoric presence in Ceylon, Colombo : Commissioner of Archaeology, Ceylon Dept. of Archaeology, 1972
* Solheim, Wilhelm G., et al. Archaeological survey in southeastern Mindanao, Manila, Philippines : National Museum of the Philippines; [Manoa] : University of Hawaii, 1979.
* Solheim, Wilhelm G., et al., (eds). Pacific region 1990 : change and challenge, Washington, D.C. : Fulbright Association; [Hawaii] : Hawaii Chapter, Fulbright Association, 1991
* Solheim, Wilhelm G. Archaeology of central Philippines : a study chiefly of the Iron Age and its relationships, [Manila] : University of the Philippines, Archaeological Studies Program, 2002.
* Solheim, Wilhelm G., (edited by Victor Paz). Southeast Asian archaeology : Wilhelm G. Solheim II festschrift, Diliman, Quezon City : University of the Philippines Press, 2004. ISBN 971-542-451-1
* Solheim, Wilhelm G. Archaeology and culture in Southeast Asia : unraveling the Nusantao, (revised edition), Diliman, Quezon City : University of the Philippines Press, 2006. ISBN 971-542-508-9