# Betoi language

Betoi (Betoy) or Betoi-Jirara is an extinct language of Colombia and Venezuela, south of the Apure River near the modern border with Colombia. The names Betoi and Jirara are those of two of its peoples/dialects; the language proper has no known name. At contact, Betoi was a local lingua franca spoken between the Uribante and Sarare rivers and along the Arauca. Enough was recorded for a brief grammatical monograph to be written.

## Classification

Betoi is generally seen as an isolate, though Kaufman (2007) included it in Macro-Paesan.
Zamponi (2017) finds enough lexical resemblances between Betoi and the Saliban languages to conclude that a genealogical relationship is plausible.

## Varieties

Historically a dialect cluster, varieties include Betoi, Jirara, Situfa, Ayrico, Ele, Lucalia, Jabúe, Arauca, Quilifay, Anabali, Lolaca, and Atabaca.
Below is a full list of Betoi varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.
* Betoi / Guanero / Isabaco - extinct language once spoken on the Casanare River, Cravo Norte River, and Apure River, Arauca territory, Colombia.
* Situfa / Cituja - extinct language once spoken on the Casanare River in the Arauca region.
* Airico - once spoken at the sources of the Manacacías River. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, pp. 243-247, only a few words.)
* Jirara - spoken once in the upper Manacacías River region. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 1, pp. 201 and 203, pt. 2, pp. 16 and 328, only a few words and phrases.)
* Atabaca - once spoken in the upper Manacacías River region. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, p. 274, only a few words.)
* Lolaca - once spoken on the confluence of the Arauca River and Chitagá River. (Unattested.)
* Quilifay - once spoken around the confluence of the Arauca River and Chitagá River. (Unattested.)
* Anabali - spoken south of the Atabaca tribe around the confluence of the Arauca River and Chitagá River. (Unattested.)
* Ele - spoken on the Ele River. (Unattested.)

## Phonology

Betoi phonology :
| | | Bilabial | Labiodental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Stop | voiceless | | | t | | k | |
| Stop | voiced | b | | d | | g | |
| Fricative | Fricative | | f | s | | | h |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | | n | | | |
| Lateral | Lateral | | | l | | | |
| Trill | Trill | | | r | | | |
| Glide | Glide | | | | j | | |

## Lexicon

Lexicon of Betoi compiled by Zamponi (2003) from various sources:

### Nouns

| English gloss | Betoi | Notes |
| earth (soil) | dafibú, umena | |
| country | ajabó | |
| sky | teo-tucu | lit. ‘house of the sun’ |
| sun | teo, theo, teo-umasoi | lit. ‘sun-man’ |
| moon | teó-ro | lit. ‘sun-woman’ |
| star | silicó | |
| Pleiades | ucasú, ocasú | |
| wind | fafuala | |
| lightning | buní | |
| rain | ofacú | |
| water | ocú, ocudú, oculiba | |
| lake | ocú | = ‘water’ |
| stone | inakí | |
| fire | fútui, futuit | |
| day | munitá | |
| month | teo-ró | = ‘moon’ |
| year | ucasú, ocasú | = ‘Pleiades’ |
| living being (animal, rational being) | ubad-, sg. ubadoi, pl. ubadola | |
| man | humas-, umas-, sg. humasoi, pl. humasola | |
| woman | ro, pl. roducajaná | |
| monkey | sorroy | |
| jaguar | ufi | |
| bird | cosiú, cusí | |
| duck | cuiviví | |
| hen | focará | |
| k.o. mosquito | sumí | |
| fish | dujiduca | duca may be the demonstrative enclitic ‘this’ |
| ants (collective) | irruqui | |
| cock | toteleló | |
| honey | alalaba | |
| forest | quaja, ucaca-ajabo | ajabo = ‘country’ |
| polypody (k.o. fern) | sorroy umucosó | lit. ‘hand of monkey’ |
| maize | romú | |
| body | ejebosi | |
| head | osacá | |
| hair | ubuca | |
| forehead | afubá | |
| face | afucá | |
| eye | ufonibá | |
| nose | iusaca | |
| mouth | afubó | |
| lip | afubé | |
| tooth | oxoki | |
| tongue | inecá | |
| throat | emalafadá | |
| arm | dafucá | |
| hand | umucosó, umocoso | |
| finger | umucurrú | |
| leg, foot | emocá | |
| thigh | uduba | |
| heart | ijiba | |
| belly | utucú | |
| shoulder | telisá | |
| father | babí, babbí | |
| mother | mamá | |
| ancestors | ojabolá | pl. |
| house | tucú, pl. tucujaná | |
| road | maná | |
| needs (requirements) | duiji | |
| spirit, devil | memelú | |
| God | Diosó | < Spanish Dios |
| Father, missionary | Babí | = ‘father’ |
| devil | memelú-fofei | lit. ‘bad spirit’ |
| will | ojaca, ajaca | |

### Verbs

| English gloss | Betoi | Notes |
| advise | babasa-, o- -eba | -eba = ‘make, do’ |
| assail | rolea- | |
| bathe | do- | |
| be (location verb (?) and auxiliary) | -u | |
| be (copula) | aj- | |
| be dismayed (or astonished) | ijuca- -uma | Italian: ‘essere sbigottito’ |
| be good | mamiaj- | mamí = ‘well’ |
| be not (copula and auxiliary) | re- (sg.) ~ ref- (pl.) | |
| be obedient | obai- -omucaaj- | |
| be pitiful | dusucaaj- | |
| bum | fafole- | |
| call | cofa- | |
| come | -usa | |
| deceive | -olea, -oloa | |
| die | -iju, rijubi- | |
| fill | anu- -eba | -eba = ‘make, do’ |
| forgive | -usuca | = ‘pay’ |
| give | -umua | |
| go | -anu | |
| help | -ausu | |
| illuminate | tulu- -eba | -eba = ‘make, do’ |
| look for | be-, cula- -atu | |
| make, do | -ebá, sa- | |
| I must beat you | robarriabarrarráácajú | |
| pay | -usuca | = ‘forgive’ |
| don’t permit | jitebometú | |
| prevent | tu- | |
| revere | -omea | |
| speak, say | faá- | |
| steal | rááquirra- | |
| take away | cumi- | |
| take care of | -inefá | |
| think | o- -acaa | |

### Adverbs

| English gloss | Betoi | Notes |
| beforehand | umarrá | |
| now | maidacasí | maida ‘today’ |
| soon, already | maydaytú, maydaitú | maida ‘today’ |
| afterwards, later | lojenuma | numa may be the root ‘all’ |
| yesterday | vita | |
| today | maidda, maida | |
| another time | jajamú | |
| there | fá | |
| down | umenanú | = ‘on earth’ |
| everywhere | ubujenuma | numa may be the root ‘all’ |
| where | día | |
| from where | diatú | |
| well | mamí | |
| little by little | caibanú | |
| casually | foirreojanudá | |
| so | mai, may | |
| little, a bit | bijeasi | |
| sufficiently | fedanú | |
| how | day | = ‘what, ?how much’ |
| very | naisú | |

### Pronouns

| English gloss | Betoi | Notes |
| I | rau | |
| you (sg.) | uju | |
| he, she, it | yairi | |
| we | raufisucá | |
| you (pl.) | ujurrola | |
| they | yarola | |
| this one (m.) | irrí | |
| this one (f.) | iú | |
| this one (n.) | ijé | |
| the same one | oanú | = ‘as’ |
| who (sg. m.) (interrogative and relative) | madoi | |
| who (sg. f.) (interrogative and relative) | mado | |
| what, which, that (sg. n.) (interrogative and relative) | majaduca | |
| what | day | = ‘how, ?how much’ |

### Other parts of speech

| English gloss | Betoi | Notes |
| this | -ducá | demonstrative clitic? |
| white | cocosiajo | |
| sweet | olisa | |
| bad | fofei, fofej, fofey | |
| wise, prudent | culasa | |
| other | ed-, sg. edoi, pl. edolatu | |
| next, coming | edasu | |
| one | edojojoi | |
| two | edoi | = ‘other’ |
| three | ibutú | = ‘and’ |
| four | ibutú-edojojoi | lit. ‘and/three one’ |
| five | rumucoso | lit. ‘my hand’ |
| many | maitolá | |
| all | -numa, sg. bagenuma, pl. bolanuma | |
| how much | daitolá | pl. |
| above | ubo | |
| inside | toli | |
| and | ibutú | |
| but | uita | |
| because | day | |
| as | oanu | = ‘the same one’ |
| no | ebamucá | |
| true! | tugaday | |
| how did this happen? | day día qué | day = ‘what, how, ?how much’; día ‘where’, -qué = ‘interrogative’ |
| excl. of wonder | ayaddi | |
| excl. of admiration | ódique | |
| excl. of desire and uncertainty | odijá | |
| excl. of fear | odifarracá | |
| excl. of grief | ai asidí | |
| interrogative marker | -qué | day = ‘what, how, ?how much’; -qué = ‘interrogative’ |
| tag-question marker | dayqué | |
| moreover | farrocafada, farrocafeda | |