# Francisco Menéndez (Black soldier)

Francisco Menéndez (c. 1704 – after 1763) was a free Black militiaman and privateer who served the Spanish Empire and helped escaped slaves gain their freedom in Spanish Florida. He was a leader of Fort Mose, the first free Black settlement in North America.
Born in The Gambia in West Africa, Menéndez was captured and sold into slavery, being purchased by European slave traders and shipped across the Atlantic to British Carolina. He escaped into Spanish Florida soon after, taking advantage of the Spanish policy which granted freedom to fugitive slaves from the British Southern colonies. Menéndez enlisted in the Spanish colonial militia, and successfully petitioned for the freedom of himself and 31 others. He moved into Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose (Fort Mose), which had been established as a settlement and military outpost for free people of color by the Spanish governor. After participating in numerous conflicts, Menéndez was recognized by the Spanish Crown for his loyalty and courage. He eventually retired in Havana, after founding the village of San Agustín de la Nueva Florida (Ceiba Mocha) in Cuba.
Fort Mose has since been designated as a National Historic Landmark and a World Heritage Site, as it was the first officially recognized community of free Blacks in what is now the United States.

## African birth

Menéndez's original name is unknown. He was likely born in part of the Mali Empire along the Gambia River in Africa.$^{:6}$ He was of Mandinka descent. Sometime between 1709 and 1711, he was captured, sold by slave traders, and probably shipped to the Province of Carolina (a British colony at the time) during a period of significantly increased importation of enslaved Africans.$^{:213}$

## In Florida

Runaway slaves from British plantations began fleeing to Spanish Florida in the late 17th century. The first documented runaways from British Carolina made it to St. Augustine in 1687. Soon after, Spain began to allow slaves who escaped from English colonies to remain in Florida. While they were required to be baptized Catholics and to work for the colony, they were paid for their labor. In 1693, Spanish King Carlos II made the policy official.
During the Yamasee War of 1715–1717, in which a multiethnic confederation of Native Americans and escaped slaves fought against the British in South Carolina, Menéndez escaped his bondage and fought alongside the Yamasee and their allies. After British reinforcements arrived, the Yamasee forces were ultimately defeated and Menéndez fled to Spanish Florida with several others, including his wife, Ana María de Escobar. He was subsequently sold to Governor Juan de Ayala y Escobar and then to Francisco Menéndez Márquez, the royal accountant of St. Augustine, Florida, in 1718. Though he remained a slave, he was baptized into the Catholic Church, taking the name of his owner, who also became his godfather. In 1726, Menéndez joined St. Augustine's Black militia. In 1727, Menéndez aided in the defense of St. Augustine, establishing his reputation for leadership. A year later he received a commendation from the governor.
According to historian Jane Landers, Menéndez became the epitome of what historian Ira Berlin called the Atlantic Creoles: people shipped from the slave ports in Africa who acquired "linguistic dexterity, cultural plasticity, and social agility". He became fluent in Spanish and probably also knew Arabic. Menéndez repeatedly petitioned both the Spanish governor and the auxiliary bishop of Cuba for his manumission. When Manuel de Montiano became governor in 1737, Menéndez once again formally requested freedom for himself and 31 others whom he claimed were unjustly enslaved, with support from a Yamasee chief. On March 15, 1738, Montiano granted unconditional freedom to all fugitives who arrived from the British colonies, including Menéndez. This created an official avenue for fugitive slaves to seek their manumission, benefitting not only those who had already reached Florida but also any future arrivals from the British colonies.
According to historian Jane Landers, in March 1725, two groups of runaway slaves reached St. Augustine, seeking both baptism and their freedom. Spanish Antonio de Benavides, the sitting governor, dispatched envoys northward; however, the British rejected his offer of 200 pesos per enslaved person, arguing it was inadequate. Governor Benavides noted that the English would only be satisfied if their slaves were returned. Even with the threat of British military action looming, the Spanish Council of the Indies advised against the return of the escaped individuals, recognizing both British anxieties and the precarious situation of the St. Augustine garrison. The council understood that residents were fearful of potential invasions from the English aimed at reclaiming their escaped slaves. They also acknowledged that those who fled were seen as committing a form of theft against their owners, and that Spain's policies could attract many more runaways to Florida who might feign a wish to convert to Christianity, thus complicating the situation further. While these discussions were ongoing, Arthur Middleton, the acting governor of British Carolina, wrote to London about the Spanish not only providing refuge to escaped slaves but also allegedly equipping them to attack British settlements. He accused them of sending groups of Indigenous people from St. Augustine to engage in violence against British colonists, looting their plantations, and capturing more enslaved individuals. In response to these raids, British Colonel John Palmer from the South Carolina Assembly launched an attack on Spanish St. Augustine in 1728. Many Black individuals fought valiantly to defend the settlement, and in gratitude, Spanish Governor Benavides freed these fighters and dismantled the slave market in St. Augustine. He even proposed to the council that freed Black individuals be sent back north to incite rebellion and that they be compensated for English scalps, although this proposal was ultimately rejected.
According to historian Jane Landers, on October 4 and 29, 1733, King Philip V of Spain released two cedulas that officially revised the crown's stance on fugitives, although they mostly reaffirmed established policies. The initial cedula prohibited any future payments to British owners of runaway slaves. Initially, the Spanish crown had set aside funds to reimburse the owners of the earliest escapees, but these funds were distributed by Spanish Governor Quiroga to his troops, preventing the English from receiving any compensation. When various groups from British Carolina tracked down their escaped slaves in St. Augustine, they were forcibly sent away without their individuals or compensation. The second cedula from the Spanish king praised the courage shown by the fugitives during the English assault in 1728 and reiterated Spain's commitment to granting freedom to all who escaped the harshness of their English captors. However, it added a stipulation that these individuals would need to serve the Spanish crown for four years prior to achieving their freedom, marking the first time a period of indenture was specified. In 1738, Spanish Governor Montiano reaffirmed the Spanish crown's offer of freedom for escaped slaves from English colonies through a Bando. That same year, he established a community for these fugitives, known as Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, situated just north of St. Augustine. Montiano provided necessary resources for this settlement and appointed Don Joseph de Leon to instruct the new residents in Christian doctrine, while Spanish Sebastian Sanchez taught them agricultural skills. On November 21, 1738, Montiano reported the arrival of twenty-three individuals—men, women, and children—who had come from Port Royal and were assigned to live in Mose. This group might have included members of a contingent of nineteen slaves who escaped from British Captain Caleb Davis, along with others from Port Royal. When Captain Davis attempted to reclaim his escaped slaves in St. Augustine, he was thwarted by the Spanish authorities, and he later recounted that the formerly enslaved individuals laughed at him during his efforts.
After 1738, Menéndez was appointed civil and military leader of the newly built Fort Mose, established for the community of freed Blacks. On December 28, 1739, Menéndez and Ana María de Escovar have a Catholic wedding ceremony to formalize their marriage. From this base, Menéndez led several raids against British Carolinian plantations,$^{:29}$ and inspired further unrest amongst the enslaved population in the province of Carolina. In 1740, a British expeditionary force invaded Florida and captured Fort Mose during the War of Jenkins' Ear. Days later, Spanish and Fort Mose militiamen counter-attacked and defeated the British, forcing them to retreat from the region. Fort Mose was destroyed during the battle but the governor again commended Menéndez and his troops, including in letters to the king. Menéndez also wrote to the king, requesting compensation for his services on at least two separate occasions, but he was unsuccessful.
After the destruction of Fort Mose, Menéndez and the Black militia returned to St. Augustine, where Menéndez enlisted as a privateer to earn an income. In 1741, Menéndez was captured by the British privateer vessel Revenge. When he was recognized as the captain of Fort Mose, he was tied to a cannon, given 200 lashes, and threatened with castration. The captain of the Revenge proceeded to sell Menéndez into slavery in the Bahamas, where he was purchased to a Mr. Stone. Whether he escaped or was ransomed by the Spanish is not known, but by 1759 he was once more back in Florida as the leader of the free Black community at the rebuilt Fort Mose.$^{:222}$
In 1759, Fort Mose had a population of 67. Those free Blacks who had moved to St. Augustine after its destruction were forcibly moved back to the fort in 1752 by the governor. The free Blacks of Fort Mose were considered among the fiercest enemies of the British and claimed they would shed every drop of their blood in defense of Spain and Catholicism. Many of them completed thirty years of active service. For their valor and dedication, they received distinctions and privileges. By 1763, there were approximately 3,000 Blacks at Fort Mose, with three quarters having once been slaves.

## Evacuation to Cuba

Menéndez continued to live at Fort Mose with his wife and four children, until Spanish Florida was ceded to the British in 1763 after the defeat of France in the Seven Years' War. In the Treaty of Paris, the British exchanged territory with Spain, taking over Florida in exchange for the return of Havana and Manila. Along with most Spanish colonists from St. Augustine and the Fort Mose community, Menéndez was evacuated by the Spanish crown to Cuba and was granted a portion of land, provisions, tools, and his own slave. Along with the other freed Blacks, Menéndez established San Agustín de la Nueva Florida (St. Augustine of the New Florida), near Matanzas. In his later years, poverty forced him to sell his land and retire to Havana, where he received a government pension.$^{:222}$

## Legacy and honors

The site of Fort Mose, where Menéndez led the militia, was designated as a National Historic Landmark by the United States in 1995. The original site was rediscovered in an archeological dig in the 1980s and has been protected as Fort Mose Historic State Park, owned and run by the Florida Park Service. It is widely known as the first legally-sanctioned community of freedmen and a destination for African-American refugees from slavery. It served as a precursor to the Underground Railroad that developed during the Antebellum years. Francisco Menéndez's life story frequently features in reenactments at Fort Mose.

## Children's book

The story of Fort Mose and Francisco Menéndez is told in a children's book published in 2010.