# Tutelo language

Tutelo, also known as Tutelo–Saponi (Tutelo: Yesá:sahį́), is a member of the Virginian branch of Siouan languages that were originally spoken in what is now Virginia and West Virginia in the United States.
Most Tutelo speakers migrated north to escape warfare. They traveled through North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and New York. In 1753, the Tutelo had joined the Iroquois Confederacy under the sponsorship of the Cayuga. They finally settled in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War at what is now known as Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation.
Nikonha, the last fluent speaker in Tutelo country, died in 1871 at age 106. The year before, he had managed to impart about 100 words of vocabulary to the ethnologist Horatio Hale, who had visited him at the Six Nations Reserve.
Descendants living at Grand River Reserve in Ontario spoke Tutelo well into the 20th century. Linguists including Horatio Hale, J. N. B. Hewitt, James Owen Dorsey, Leo J. Frachtenberg, Edward Sapir, Frank Speck, and Marianne Mithun recorded the language. The last active speakers, a mother and daughter, died in a house fire shortly before Mithun's visit in 1982. The last native speaker, Albert Green, died sometime after that.

## Documentation

Hale published a brief grammar and vocabulary in 1883 and confirmed the language as Siouan through comparisons with Dakota and Hidatsa. His excitement was considerable to find an ancient Dakotan language, which was once widespread among inland tribes in Virginia, to have been preserved on a predominantly Iroquoian-speaking reserve in Ontario. Previously, the only recorded information on the language had been a short list of words and phrases collected by Lieutenant John Fontaine at Fort Christanna in 1716, and a few assorted terms recorded by colonial sources, such as John Lederer, Abraham Wood, Hugh Jones, and William Byrd II.
Hale noted the testimony of colonial historian Robert Beverley, Jr. that the dialect of the Occaneechi, believed to be related to Tutelo, was used as a lingua franca by all the tribes in the region regardless of their first languages, and it was known to the chiefs, "conjurers," and priests of all tribes. These spiritual practitioners used it in their ceremonies, just as Roman Catholic priests in Europe and the US used Latin. Hale's grammar also noted further comparisons to Latin and Ancient Greek. He remarked on the classical nature of Tutelo's rich variety of verb tenses available to the speaker, including what he remarked as an "aorist" perfect verb tense, ending in "-wa".
James Dorsey, another Siouan linguist, collected extensive vocabulary and grammar samples around the same time as Hale, as did Hewitt a few years later. Frachtenberg and Sapir both visited the Six Nations Ontario reserve in the first decade of the 1900s and found that only a few Cayuga of Tutelo ancestry remembered a handful of Tutelo words. Speck did much fieldwork to record and preserve their cultural traditions in the 1930s but found little of the speech remaining. Mithun managed to collect a handful of terms that were still remembered in 1980.
The language as preserved by these efforts is now believed to have been mutually intelligible with, if not identical to, the speech of other Virginia Siouan groups in general, including the Monacan and Manahoac and Nahyssan confederacies, as well as the subdivisions of Occaneechi, Saponi, etc.
In 1996, Giulia Oliverio wrote A Grammar and Dictionary of Tutelo as her dissertation. In 2021 the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages assisted Tutelo activists in building a Living Dictionary for Tutelo-Saponi Monacan.

## Phonology

Oliverio proposes the following analysis of the sound system of Tutelo:

### Consonants

| | | Labial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Plosive/ Affricate | plain | p | t | tʃ | k | ʔ |
| Plosive/ Affricate | aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | |
| Fricative | Fricative | | s | ʃ | x | h |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | | |
| Lateral | Lateral | | l | | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w | | j | | |

### Vowels

Tutelo has a standard vowel inventory for a Siouan language. Proto-Siouan *ũ and *ũː is lowered to /õ/ and /õː/, respectively.

#### Oral vowels

| | Front | Front | Central | Central | Back | Back |
| | short | long | short | long | short | long |
| High | i | iː | | | u | uː |
| Mid | e | eː | | | o | oː |
| Low | | | a | aː | | |

#### Nasal vowels

| | Front | Front | Central | Central | Back | Back |
| | short | long | short | long | short | long |
| High | ĩ | ĩː | | | | |
| Mid | | | | | õ | õː |
| Low | | | ã | ãː | | |

## Grammar

Independent personal pronouns, as recorded by Dorsey, are:
* 1st sing. - Mima (I)
* 2nd sing. - Yima (you)
* 3rd sing. - Ima (he, she, it)
The pronoun Huk "all" may be added to form the plurals Mimahuk "we" and Yimahuk "ye", and "they" is Imahese.
In verbal conjugations, the subject pronouns are represented by various prefixes and suffixes, usually as follows:
* 1st sing. - Ma- or Wa- (or -ma-, -wa-)
* 2nd sing. - Ya- (-ya-)
* 3rd sing. - (null; no affixes, simple verb)
* 1st plur. - Mank- or Wa'en- (prefix only)
* 2nd plur. - Ya- (-ya-) + -pui
* 3rd plur. - --hle, -hne.
An example as given by Hale is the verb Yandosteka "love", and the pronoun is between yando- and -steka:
* Yandowasteka, I love
* Yandoyasteka, you love
* Yandosteka, he or she loves
* Mankyandosteka, we love
* Yandoyastekapui, ye love
* Yandostekahnese, they love.
The last form includes the common additional tense suffix -se, which literally conveys the progressive tense. There are also 'stative' classes of verbs that take the 'passive' (oblique) pronoun affixes (mi- or wi-, yi- etc.) as subjects.
Additional tenses can be formed by the use of other suffixes including -ka (past), -ta (future), -wa (aorist or perfect), -kewa (past perfect), and -ma (perfect progressive). Rules for combining the suffixes with stems in final vowels are slightly complex.

## Vocabulary

The words, mostly coming from the three main documents composed by Hale, Frachtenberg & Sapir, have some amount of overlap.
* Arm- hiçto, histo (likely histo)
* Armband- gaksagiwago
* Arrow- mañksii, mañkoi (likely ąñisi, with ma- prefix, my. Comparable to Biloxi)
* Ashes- alapok (likely alapo, when compared to Ioway. Specifically pipe residue, or visible breath)
* Aunt- watemai, tomin (likely tomįŋ)
* Autumn- tañyi, ta'i, tani (likely tąñi)
* Axe- nisep, hisepi, hisep (likely hisepi)
* Bag- mañksui
* Ball- tapi
* Berk (Idiot)- qapi, yohiñk
* Bear- munti, monti, mondi, yutkayek (likely mọŋti)
* Bead- watai (likely wata)
* Beaver- yaop, munaqka (likely yap)
* Beaver Dam- yapati, Yapatio (literally yap, Beaver, ati, house)
* Bed- sasi
* Bird- mayiñk (likely wayįñi)
* Bird's nest- mayeñgieqta (likely wayįñi exta, bird at here)
* Black Man- maganakasit, maxkanakasit
* Black Pepper- bebahe (borrowed from English)
* Blood- wayi
* Body- tesi, yuqteki (likely tesi)
* Bone- wahoi, wahui (likely wahu)
* Book- minagi
* Boy- wakasik, gutskai, waitewa
* Bow- inosik, inosek
* Bracelet- kagsaginakon
* Brain- wasoti, wasut (likely wasuti)
* Bread- wagesakwai, waksakgai, maksapaa
* Breeches (pants, poss. also loincloth)- lonoughte
* Brother- niwagenumpai, iñginumbai
* Brother, older- witañsk, wital, wahiik
* Brother, younger- wisuñtk, minon, suntka (likely sųŋtka)
* Buck (deer)- babosgoo
* Buffalo- iap, mampañdaktai (likely mąŋpa itąŋka)
* Buzzard Roost- hico oto (literally vulture tree)
* Canoe- miñkolhapi, meñkolahapi
* Cat- pus (borrowed from English), dalusgik (borrowed from Iroquois)
* Cheek- uksteh
* Cherry- yosañkrota
* Chief- hoonthy (likely hoti or hooti. Comparable to Biloxi xidi)
* Child- wakasik, wagotskai, niska
* Chunkey- chenco (likely cąŋko)
* Claw- oluskese
* Cloud- maqosi
* Club- yeheti
* Coat- opockhe
* Colt- tsongidayenk (likely cọŋkitąñe, little horse. Siouan languages have a suffix that turns nouns diminutive. Ioway's is -ąñe.)
* Copper- penihei (from English Haypenny. Given fairly formulaic Native metal names & having the word for metal, most likely should be mąŋs acuti, red metal)
* Cousin- mangida, ungida
* Cow- mapayenk, mapain (likely mąŋpąñe, little buffalo)
* Cranberry- hohnuñk (likely wrong word. Best comparable to Lakota Hoanunk, on the other side of. Not comparable to known words for Cranberry.)
* Crane (bird)- kainstakai
* Crow- kahi (likely kąŋxi)
* Dance- wagitçi, ketçi (likely wakici)
* Darkness- usihaa, ohsiha (same as night)
* Daughter- witeka, wiohañke, miohañk
* Day- nahambe, nahamp, nahanpe (likely nahąŋpe)
* Deer- witai (likely wita)
* Devil- mampa isi (Buffalo foot?)
* Dog- tcong, Congo, tconki, tconk, tsunk (likely cọŋki)
* Duck- ictai, heistan, maneasei)
* Ear- naqoq, nahuh
* Earth- amani, amai (likely amąñi)
* Egg- mayink pos (likely wayįñi pus, partly taking from English)
* Evening- oshitewa (tewa is also included in one of the words for boy, with the main word resembling wąñi- man. This word may mean "new night," which would make the other word "new man."
* Eye- tasui, tasuye
* Face- talukna, tarubna
* False Face (Iroquois, Medicine Man/ Shaman)- wahokmei, wahukmi (likely waho wąñi, spirit man. NOTE- In Iroquois culture, the shaman and medicine man are the same thing, but it isn't the same in Siouan culture. This resembles the usual pattern for other Siouan words for shaman.)
* Father- eati, tat, yat, ati (base word- ati, mine- tati, yours- yati, his/hers- eyati, ours- maeyati)
* Finger- hak (likely haki)
* Fingernail- tsutsaki, tcutcag (likely cucaki)
* Fire- pitc, peti, petc (likely peji)
* Fish- wihoi, bisoka (likely wiho)
* Flesh- wayuqteki, wayuqtik
* Fog- manotihua
* Food- waluti
* Foot- içi, isi (likely isi)
* Ford (water)- mony seep, moneshap (likely mone šepa, shallow/ level water. Compare to Lakota chapa.)
* Forehead- tikai, pania minte
* Fox- tohkai (likely toka)
* Friend- witahe, witaqa
* Frog- hemo (probably more specifically bullfrog. Many Siouan languages follow pattern of having unique word for bullfrog, but a general word for all other frog-like animals, which tends to be peška. This closely resembles the Mosopelea word for bullfrog, temu.
* Ghost- wanuntci (likely wanųŋci. Comparable to words in other Siouan languages for ghost, soul and shadow)
* Girl- wagatc, wakasik, woman
* God (Christian)- eingyen, einga (possibly approximation of word English- ąñiole)
* Goose- maneasan (likely wayįñi asąŋ, white bird)
* Goose honk- cohunks (likely kahąŋkeš. Similar to Powhatan word for Goose, kahauge, which could be named after its sound. Siouan languages sometimes add an unnecessary -š suffix for emphasis.)
* Grandfather- ekuni, higun, kukak
* Grandmother- higun
* Grass- sunktaki, muktagi, otoi (oto, green, probably usable, but not main word)
* Gun- miñkte, mikta
* Hail- noq
* Hair- natonwe, nantoi, natoi
* Hand- hag, haki, hak (likely haki)
* Hat- lubus, kotubos, apato bokso
* Head- pasuye, pasui (likely pasu)
* Heart- yanti, tapi (likely yąŋti)
* Horse- tsungide, tsongide (likely cọŋkitąŋ, big dog)
* House- ati
* Ice- nonhi, mingiratcah (likely nọŋxi)
* Indian- wahtakai
* Iron- mans, mas, masiqorak (likely mąŋs ihola, grey metal. Compare to Ho-Chunk for grey, hora.)
* Island- histek, stek, stesteki
* Jar/ Jug/ Bottle- meni igodo
* Kettle- yesiñk, meni igatean
* Knife- maseni, masei, masai, masa, maøen (likely masąŋ)
* LaCrosse Stick- yahe
* Leaf- otoi, otoq (likely oto)
* Leg- yeksa, ieksa, yeksai, mini
* Maize- mandaqei, mataqe (likely mąŋtahe, combo of Powhatan mandamiin and Iroquoian nęhę)
* Male Deer- tcinonkehe
* Man- wahtahka, waiyua, waiyuwa, waiwaq, yuhkan, nona, mihaistek (likely wąñi, compared to Ioway wąñe)
* Moon- minosa, mimahei
* Morning- kanahampuai, kanahabnen
* Mother- ina, hena, henun (likely hena)
* Mountain- çuqe, suhi, oheki (likely aheki)
* Mouth- ihi, ih (likely i)
* Neck- inktei, askai
* Night- usi, osi (likely usųŋhi, comparable to Cherokee)
* Oak- taskahoi, taskahui (likely taska hu)
* Otter- mosnuke (likely ošnaka with ma- prefix, my. Comparable to several other languages)
* Paint- massa (prob. wrong word, variant of word for metal. Both paint and metal can be gotten from earth.)
* Partridge- wustetkai
* Pig- masgolo, monskulo
* Pigeon- mayutkai, wiyotkai
* Pine- wasti, waste
* Pipe (smoking)- yehiñstik, ihirtik, iheñstek, kcembai
* Pot- meni kateon (likely mone kateọŋ, water, plus approximation of English kettle)
* Powder (gun)- mahinkt
* Powder horn- tabike (believed to be wrong word.)
* Prairie- latakoi
* Raccoon- kanulon nixa nison
* Rain- qawoi, qawoqa, hawoha, qawo (likely xawo)
* Raspberry- hasisiai (contains haze, berry, rest uncertain)
* River- taksita, taksitai
* Road, path- hodke (likely hąŋtkọŋ.)
* Salt- matsigoyo
* Sea- yetani, yetai, ietan (likely ñetąŋ)
* Shirt- opockhe hassa
* Shoes- handisonoi, angohlei, agore, agode, agohele (latter 3 are clearly trying to be the word English- likely ąñiole)
* Shot (bullets)- mankey (poss. related to or same as word for arrow)
* Shot bag (for carrying gun ammo)- miktoke
* Sister- minek, tahañk, dawinak
* Sky- mantoi, matoni, matoi (likely mąŋto, borrowed from Powhatan word for spirits)
* Snake- wageni, moka (likely wakąŋ, comparable to Ho-Chunk)
* Son- witeka, tekai, qutekai, tagutckai
* Soup- wohe
* Spring (season)- wehahempei, wehaehimpe, maste (likely weha, combined with nahąŋpe, day)
* Squirrel- nistaqkai
* Star- tabunitckai, tapninskai
* Stockings- honis
* Stone- histeki, nistek (resembles Algonquian words for warm, such as Lenape, keshtek. Probably right word, because it repeats in pipe and island, but not sure why)
* Strawberry- haspahinuk (likely haze pahįŋ, spike berry)
* Sugar- wadewi
* Summer- wehe piwa (likely trying to say weha piwa, but compared to other Siouan languages, the correct word is probably maste)
* Sun- mie, min, mi (likely wi or mi)
* Sword- Impough
* Throat- loti
* Thunder- tui, tuhangrua (tuhi is a word for Thunderbird in a few Siouan languages and the given word for wind in at least one)
* Tobacco- yehni, yihnu, kcembai Noni
* Today- nahamleken
* Toes- atkasusai
* Tomorrow- nahampk
* Tongue- netci, netsi, letci
* Tooth- ihi
* Town- mampa, mambi (poss. Atipu, houses, with ma- my, added)
* Tree- oni, wien, mien (likely iyąŋ)
* Turkey- mandahkai, manduhkai (likely wayįñitąŋka, big bird)
* Turkey's Beard- maosti (possibly osti, under-lip. Comparable to Lakota išti.)
* Uncle- minek (likely leke or neke)
* Valley- onqyayun
* Warrior- erutaone
* Water- mani (likely mone)
* White Man- miha magonaga, waxkanaka
* Wig- machneto dufas
* Wind- maninkie, mamunklei, maminkre
* Wolf- muñktagin, muñktokai, maktukai, tsungiwe
* Woman- mihani, mihan, mahei, warewa (likely mihąn)
* Wood- miyani, mien, miyei (likely iyąŋ)
* Wooden Spoon- gisa
* Yesterday- sito
* Young Deer- hekerunska

### Names

A few words can be gleaned from a document by Kirtland, who gathered several Saponi names at an Iroquois settlement near Niagara Falls. Some of his translations were likely way off, but the names themselves are potentially useful.
* Yanyahkeya- No Heart. (This is also a common Ioway/ Chiwere Siouan name, whom the Saponi had common ancestry with. Possibly a combination of heart, yąŋti, which has been doubled up on itself to give a vague sense of multiplicity- so yąŋyąŋti- and another word which would have to mean the same as Ioway ñiñe, be without.)
* Washomene- Witchcraft. (Could be related to the Ioway word wašwehi, medicine man.)
* Ono3egeneon- murdering
* Ontehoghkau- Old Town
* Haykawyenin- Treading on the Mountain
* Mahlonguti
* Kansoreakt
* Porarah- Looking for Them
* Nehqueksati- Ball
* Keest- Ladle
* Monack
* Pekaraghka
A few other names were gleaned from other documents composed treaties.
* Tawkeesokha
* Nehawroose
* Chawco
* Mawseeunthey
* Shurenough
* Amaroleck