# Mirandese language

Mirandese (mirandés; lhéngua mirandesa in Central and Raiano, and léngua mirandesa in Sendinese) is an Asturleonese language or variety that is sparsely spoken in a small area of northeastern Portugal in eastern Tierra de Miranda (made up of the municipalities of Miranda de l Douro, Mogadouro and Bumioso, being extinct in Mogadouro and present in Bumioso only in some eastern villages, like Angueira). The Assembly of the Republic granted it official recognition alongside Portuguese for local matters with Law 7/99 of 29 January 1999. In 2001, Mirandese was officially recognised by the European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages, which aims to promote the survival of the least spoken European languages.
Mirandese has a distinct phonology, morphology and syntax. It has its roots in the local Vulgar Latin spoken in the northern Iberian Peninsula.
Mirandese is a descendant of the Astur-Leonese variety spoken in the Kingdom of León and has both archaisms and innovations that differentiate it from the modern varieties of Astur-Leonese spoken in Spain. In recognition of these differences, and due to its political isolation from the rest of the Astur-Leonese speaking territory, Mirandese has adopted a different written norm to the one used in Spain for Astur-Leonese.

## History

Mirandese is a descendant of the Old Leonese language spoken in the Kingdom of León in medieval Iberia. In the early 16th century, Old Leonese began to split, alongside Galician-Portuguese, into the varieties existent today, one of them being Mirandese.
Until 1884, Mirandese was a purely spoken language, but in that year, José Leite de Vasconcelos wrote Flores Mirandézas (Froles Mirandesas in modern Mirandese, "Mirandese Flowers"), a book with his own proposal for a Mirandese writing system, with a large number of diacritics, which have helped to convey what Mirandese sounded like in the 19th century.
One of the texts in Flores Mirandézas, "LHÊNGUA MIRANDÉZA" 'MIRANDESE LANGUAGE' (LHÉNGUA MIRANDESA in modern Mirandese), transcribed:
| Vasconcelos Mirandese (1884) | First official orthography (90's) | Current Mirandese | English |
| Qĭêm dirĭê q’antre ‘ls matos èiriçados, Las ourrĭêtas i ‘ls ríus d’ésta tĭêrra, Bibĭê, cumo ‘l chaguárço de la ſĭêrra, Ũṅa lhêngua de ſóuns tã bariados ? Mostre-ſe i fále-ſ’ éssa lhêngua, filha D’um póbo qe tĭêm néilha ‘l chóro i ‘l canto ! Nada pur çĭêrto mus câutíba tânto Cumo la fórm’ am qe l’idéia brilha. | Quiên dirie qu'antre ls Matos eiriçados, Las ourriêtas i ls rius desta tiêrra, Bibie, cumo l chaguarço de la siêrra, Ũa lhéngua de sonidos/sons tan bariados? (A)mostre-se i fale-se essa lhéngua, filha Dun pobo que ten neilha l choro i l canto! Nada por ciêrto mos cautiba tanto Cumo la forma an que l'eideia brilha. | Quien dirie qu'antre ls Matos eiriçados, Las ourrietas i ls rius desta tierra, Bibie, cumo l chaguarço de la sierra, Ũa lhéngua/léngua de sonidos/sons tan bariados? (A)mostre-se i fale-se essa lhéngua/léngua, filha Dun pobo que ten neilha l choro i l canto! Nada por cierto mos cautiba tanto Cumo la forma an que l'eideia brilha. | Who'd say that amongst the Bristle bushes, The valleys and the rivers of this land, There lived, like the plants of the mountain range, A language, daughter Of people that have in it the cries and songs! Nothing certainly captivates us as much As the way in which said idea shines. |
In the 19th century, Leite de Vasconcelos described Mirandese as "the language of the farms, of work, home, and love between the Mirandese". Since 1986–87, it has been taught optionally to students at the primary and lower secondary level, and has thus been somewhat recovering. By Law 7/99, Mirandese was given official recognition by the Assembly of the Republic alongside Portuguese. The law provides for its promotion and allows its usage for local matters in Miranda do Douro.
In 1999, Mirandese gained its first official orthography, which was later tweaked in 2000. Today Mirandese retains speakers in most of the villages of the municipality of Miranda de l Douro and in some villages of Bumioso (such as Vilar Seco and Angueira); and some linguistic influence can be observed at other villages of the municipality of Bumioso and the municipalities of Mogadouro, Macedo de Cavaleiros and Bragança.
A 2020 survey by University of Vigo, carried out in Miranda do Douro, estimated the number of speakers of the language to be around 3,500 with 1,500 of them being regular speakers. The study observed strong decline in the usage of the language in younger people.

## Orthography

Mirandese is written using the Latin alphabet, with a Portuguese basis for orthography due to its political situation:
| Letters and Dipgraphs | Letters and Dipgraphs | Names | IPA |
| Uppercase | Lowercase | Names | IPA |
| A | a | á | /a/, /ɐ/ |
| AN | an | - | /ɐ̃/ (sometimes /ɐn/) |
| B | b | bé | /b/, /β/ |
| C | c | cé, qué | /k/, /s/ |
| Ç | ç | cé de cedilha | /s/, /z/ |
| D | d | dé | /d/, /ð/ |
| E | e | é | /ɛ/, /e/, /ɨ/ |
| EN | en | - | /ẽ/ (sometimes /en/) /ɨ̃/ |
| F | f | fé | /f/ |
| G | g | gué | /g/, /ɣ/, /ʒ/ |
| H | h | hagá | — |
| I | i | i | /i/, /j/ |
| IN | in | - | /ĩ/ (sometimes /in/), /ɨ̃j̃/ (Sendinese) |
| J | j | jé | /ʒ/ |
| L | l | lé | /l/, /ɫ/ |
| LH | lh | - | /ʎ/ |
| M | m | mé | /m/, /~/ |
| N | n | né | /n/, /~/ |
| NH | nh | - | /ɲ/ |
| O | o | ó | /ɔ/, /o/, /u/, /ʊ/ |
| ON | on | - | /õ/ (sometimes /on/) |
| P | p | pé | /p/ |
| Q | q | qué | /k/ |
| R | r | ré | /ɾ/, /r/ |
| RR | rr | - | /r/ |
| S | s | sé | /s̥/, /z̥/ |
| SS | s | sé | /s̥/ |
| T | t | té | /t/ |
| U | u | u | /u/, /w/, /ũ/ |
| UN | un | - | /ũ/, /ʊ̃/ |
| X | x | xiç | /ʃ/ |
| Y | y | i griego | /j/ |
| Z | z | zé | /z/ |

## Variants

Three variants of the Mirandese language exist: Border Mirandese (Mirandés Raiano), Central Mirandese (Mirandés Central) and Sendinese (Sendinés). Most speakers of Mirandese also speak Portuguese.
Despite there being a singular writing system for mirandese, there is one aspect that is written differently in different dialects. In the Sendinese dialect, many words that in other dialects are said with /ʎ/ ⟨lh⟩, are said with /l/ ⟨l⟩ (alá for alhá 'over there', lado for lhado 'side', luç for lhuç 'light', amongst others)
The main orthographical differences between Mirandese in Portugal and the Astur-Leonese languages in Spain are caused by the dominant languages in each region. And while Mirandese has been influenced phonetically and in lexicon by Portuguese and the Astur-Leonese languages in Spain by Spanish, they retain more similarities among themselves than to the main languages of each country. Another difference is that Mirandese and Leonese remain very conservative, while Asturian has undergone a greater amount of change.

## Phonology

Some historical developments in Mirandese are the following:
* Mirandese maintains distinct reflexes of all seven medieval Ibero-Romance sibilants:
       Ibero-RomanceMirandeseEuropean PortugueseNorth/Central Spanish /t͡ʃ//t͡ʃ/ ⟨ch⟩/ʃ/ ⟨ch⟩/t͡ʃ/ ⟨ch⟩ /ʃ//ʃ/ ⟨x⟩/ʃ/ ⟨x⟩/x/ ⟨j⟩ /ʒ/ or /d͡ʒ//ʒ/ ⟨g⟩ / ⟨j⟩/ʒ/ ⟨g⟩ / ⟨j⟩/x/ ⟨g⟩ / ⟨j⟩ /t͡s/ > /s̻//s̻/ ⟨c⟩ / ⟨ç⟩/s̻/ ⟨c⟩ / ⟨ç⟩/θ/ ⟨c⟩ / ⟨z⟩ /d͡z/ > /z̻//z̻/ ⟨z⟩/z̻/ ⟨z⟩/θ/ ⟨c⟩ / ⟨z⟩ /s̺//s̺/ ⟨s⟩ / ⟨-ss-⟩/s̻/ ⟨s⟩ / ⟨-ss-⟩/s̺/ ⟨s⟩ /z̺//z̺/ ⟨s⟩/z̻/ ⟨s⟩/s̺/ ⟨s⟩
    /s̺/ and /z̺/ indicate apico-alveolar sibilants (as in modern Catalan, northern/central peninsular Spanish and coastal northern European Portuguese), while /s̻/ and /z̻/ are dentalized laminal alveolar sibilants (as in most modern Portuguese, French and English). The unrelated Basque language also maintains a distinction between /s̺/ and /s̻/ (Basque has no voiced sibilants), which suggests that the distinction originally was an areal feature across Iberia.
    Portuguese spelling still distinguishes all seven and is identical to Mirandese spelling in this respect, but in pronunciation, Portuguese has reduced them to four /s, z, ʃ, ʒ/ except in northern hinterland European Portuguese dialects, including those of the area that Mirandese is spoken. Northern/central Peninsular Spanish has also reduced them to four but in quite a different way: /t͡ʃ, θ, s̺, x/. Western Andalusian Spanish and Latin American Spanish have further reduced them to three: /t͡ʃ, s̻, x/.
* Retention of the initial /f/ from Latin, like nearly all dialects of Western Romance (the major maverick being Spanish, where /f/> /h/ > ∅).
* As in Portuguese, the Latin initial consonant clusters /pl/, /kl/, /fl/ evolve into /ʃ/.
* Proto-Romance medial clusters -ly- and -cl- became medial /ʎ/.
* The cluster /-mb-/ is kept.
* Proto-Romance -mn- becomes /m/: lūm'nem > lume.
* Falling diphthongs /ei/, /ou/ preserved.
* Final -o becomes /u/.
* Voiced sibilants are still maintained.
* Retention of intervocalic /l/, /n/.
* Western Romance /ɛ/, /ɔ/ can diphthongize to /jɛ/, /wo/ (as in Italian). That happens not only before palatals, as in Aragonese, but also before nasals.
* /l/ is palatalized word-initially (as in other Astur-Leonese languages and in Catalan).

### Consonants

| | | Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar |
| Nasal | Nasal | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ | | ɲ ⟨nh⟩ | (ŋ) ⟨ũ⟩ |
| Plosive | voiceless | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | | | k ⟨c, q⟩ |
| Plosive | voiced | b ⟨b⟩ | d ⟨d⟩ | | | ɡ ⟨g⟩ |
| Affricate | voiceless | | | | tʃ ⟨ch⟩ | |
| Fricative | voiceless | f ⟨f⟩ | s̻ ⟨c, ç⟩ | s̺ ⟨s, ss⟩ | ʃ ⟨x⟩ | |
| Fricative | voiced | | z̻ ⟨z⟩ | z̺ ⟨s⟩ | ʒ ⟨j⟩ | |
| Approximant | central | | | | j ⟨y⟩ | (w) ⟨u-⟩ |
| Approximant | lateral | | l ⟨l⟩ | | ʎ ⟨lh⟩ | |
| Trill | Trill | | | r ⟨r, rr⟩ | | |
| Tap | Tap | | | ɾ ⟨r⟩ | | |
* As stated above, the laminal dental sibilants correspond to Portuguese /s, z/. These are spelled c/ç and z. The corresponding alveolar sibilants are apical and are spelled s(s) and s. Furthermore, there is an additional palatal affricate /tʃ/ ch that is distinct from the fricative /ʃ/, spelled x. The voiced /ʒ/ is spelled j or g, as in Portuguese. Standard Portuguese has reduced all those sounds to just four fricatives: /s, z, ʃ, ʒ/.
* The "hard" or "long" R is an alveolar trill /r/, as in other varieties of Astur-Leonese and Spanish. The Portuguese uvular fricative [ʁ] is not found in Mirandese. The "soft" or "short" R is an ordinary alveolar tap [ɾ] commonly found in the Iberian Peninsula. As in other languages spoken in the region, the two contrast only in the word-internal position.
* Voiced stops /b, d, ɡ/ can be lenited as fricatives [β, ð, ɣ].

### Vowels

All oral and nasal vowel sounds and allophones are the same from Portuguese, with different allophones:
Oral vowels :
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i | ɨ | u |
| Near-close | | | ʊ |
| Close-mid | e | | o |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ɐ | ɔ |
| Open | | a | |
Nasal vowels :
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | ĩ | ɨ̃ | ũ |
| Near-close | | | ʊ̃ |
| Close-mid | ẽ | | õ |
| Open-mid | ɛ̃ | | |
| Near-open | | ɐ̃ | |
* /a/ has allophones of [ä, ɐ], /e/ with [ɛ, e, ɨ], and /o/ with [ɔ, o, u] and [ʊ]. And with the addition of nasal vowel sounds [ɨ̃] and [ɛ̃] for /ẽ/.
* Vowels /i, u/ can become glides [j, w] when preceding or following other vowels.

### Dialectal variations

The main differences between the three mirandese dialects are in the pronunciation of words.
| Dialect | Sentence | IPA | Meaning |
| Raiano | Hai más fuogo alhá, i ye deimingo! | ˈaj ˈmas̺ ˈfwo.ɣʊ/u/ˈfwo.ʊ/u ɐˈʎa, ˈi ˈje dejˈmĩ.gʲʊ/u | 'there's more fire over there, and it's Sunday!' |
| Central | Hai más/mais fuogo alhá, i ye deimingo! | ˈaj ˈmas̺/ˈmajs̺ ˈfwo.ɣʊ/u ɐˈʎa, i je dejˈmĩ.gʊ/u | 'there's more fire over there, and it's Sunday!' |
| Sendinese | Hai más fuogo alá, i ye demingo! | ˈaj ˈmas̺ ˈfu.ɣʊ/u ɐˈla, ˈi ˈ(j)i dɨˈmʊ̃j̃.gʲʊ/u | 'there's more fire over there, and it's Sunday!' |

## Morphology

As in Portuguese, Mirandese still uses the following synthetic tenses:
* Synthetic pluperfect in -ra.
* Future subjunctive in -r(e).
* Personal infinitive in -r(e), which has the same endings as the future subjunctive but often differs as the personal infinitive always uses the infinitive stem, whereas the future subjunctive uses the past.

## Influence on Transmontano Portuguese

Mirandese was formerly spoken in the general area of the district of Bragança (Bergáncia in Mirandese), that speaks the Transmontano dialect of Portuguese. Although Mirandese has been lost in said region, it left some words and phonetic influences behind.

### Words used in eastern Trás-Os-Montes of (likely) Mirandese origin

| Portuguese of Campo de Víboras | Mirandese | Rest of Trás-Os-Montes/Standard Portuguese | English Translation |
| alcaforro | alcaforro | abutre | vulture |
| amalinado | amalinado | adoentado | sick |
| anubrado | anubrado | nublado | cloudy |
| assomar | assomar | espreitar (false friend with Portuguese assomar) | to peek |
| bardeiro | bardeiro | vassoura | broom |
| betxe | beche | bode (false friend with Portuguese beche) | billy-goat |
| botxe | boche | bofe | lung (vulgar) |
| catxo | cacho | bocado | bit |
| canhona | canhona | ovelha | sheep |
| carambelo | carambelo | gelo | ice |
| txafurgo | chafurgo | mergulho | dive |
| curgidoso | curjidoso | curioso/desenrascado | curious/resourceful |
| d’apeto | (d’)apeto | de propósito | on purpose |
| desinjum | zinjun | pequeno-almoço/desjejum (rare) | breakfast |
| emantes | mentes | enquanto | while |
| (ele) fai | (el) fai | (ele) faz | (he) does |
| forfalha | forfalha | migalha | crumb |
| guitxo | guicho | esperto/alerta | smart/alert |
| ai | hai | há | there is |
| scuma | scuma | espuma | foam |

## Protection measures

The following measures have been taken to protect and develop Mirandese:
* allow primary teaching staff in the district of Miranda do Douro to teach in Mirandese, since 1986/1987, thanks to the ministerial authorisation published on 9 September 1985;
* publish books in Mirandese and about the Mirandese language, promoted by the Council of Miranda do Douro;
* facilitate annual celebrations in the city as well as a literary competition, promoted by the Council of Miranda do Douro;
* use of Mirandese in town celebrations, official commemorations and, occasionally, on social media;
* publish two volumes of the Asterix comic books;
* translate all the toponymic signs in Miranda do Douro, promoted by the Council of Miranda do Douro in 2006;
* develop studies by research centres in Portugal, such as "Atlas Linguístico de Portugal", by the Centro de Linguística at University of Lisbon, and "Inquérito Linguístico Boléo", by the University of Coimbra;
* create Biquipédia, a Mirandese Wikipedia;
* make sites available in Mirandese, such as Photoblog and WordPress.
* Mirandese music was recorded by Roberto Leal for his albums "Canto da Terra" (2007) and "Raiç/Raíz" (2010).

## Sample text

The following is a sample text of the Mirandese language, written by Amadeu Ferreira, and published in the newspaper Público, on 24 July 2007.
| Mirandese | Portuguese | English |
| Muitas lhénguas ténen proua de ls sous pergaminos antigos, de la lhiteratura screbida hai cientos d'anhos i de scritores hai muito afamados, hoije bandeiras dessas lhénguas. Mas outras hai que nun puoden tener proua de nada desso, cumo ye l causo de la lhéngua mirandesa. | Muitas línguas têm orgulho dos seus pergaminhos antigos, da literatura escrita há centenas de anos e de escritores muito famosos, hoje bandeiras dessas línguas. Mas há outras que não podem ter orgulho de nada disso, como é o caso da língua mirandesa. | Many languages take pride in their ancient scrolls, their centuries-old literature, and in famous writers, today standards of those languages. But there are others which can't boast of any of this, as in the case of Mirandese. |
Then a comparison of the previous text in three modern languages of the Asturo-leonese group:
| Mirandese | Leonese | Asturian |
| Muitas lhénguas ténen proua de ls sous pergaminos antigos, de la lhiteratura screbida hai cientos d'anhos i de scritores hai muito afamados, hoije bandeiras dessas lhénguas. Mas outras hai que nun puoden tener proua de nada desso, cumo ye l causo de la lhéngua mirandesa. | Muitas llinguas tien arguyu de los sous pergaminos antiguos, de la lliteratura escrita van cientos d'annos y d'escritores bien famosos; guei bandeiras d'eisas llinguas. Peru hai outras que nun pueden tener arguyu de nada d'eisu, cumu ye'l casu de la llingua mirandesa. | Munches llingües tienen arguyu de los sos pergaminos antiguos, de la lliteratura escrita hai cientos d'años y d'escritores enforma famosos, güei banderes d'eses llingües. Pero hai otres que nun pueden tener arguyu de nada d'eso, como ye'l casu de la llingua mirandesa. |

### Old writing

When Mirandese was first officially recognised and a writing system was established, it had ⟨ê⟩ and ⟨ô⟩ (like Portuguese) to represent [e] and [o] respectively in the diphthong ⟨uô⟩ and ⟨iê⟩. These have since fallen in disuse due to the fact that this rendering was only accurate in the Central and Raiano dialect, where said diphthongs were read [wo] and [je], unlike the Sendinese dialect, where they had been reduced to [u] and [i].
In 2000, the "purmeira adenda" 'first addendum' was made to the Mirandese orthography, quickly followed by a second one two years later, but only the first was put to use officially, removing ⟨ê⟩ and ⟨ô⟩, allowing Sendinese speakers to write their unpalatalised versions of words with ⟨l⟩ instead of ⟨lh⟩, among other small tweaks.

## Comparative tables

| Latin | Mirandese | Leonese | Central Asturian | Montañés Cantabrian | Pasiegu Cantabrian | Extremaduran | Portuguese | Galician | Xalimego | Spanish | Aragonese | Catalan | Gascon | English |
| altus | alto | altu | altu | altu | altu | artu | alto | alto | altu/cirulalgu, firulalgu | alto | alto | alt | haut | high/tall |
| quasi | quaije/quaisque | cuasi | cuasi, cuásique | cuasi | casi | cuasi, abati | quase | case | caishi/cashi/casi/cuashi/cuasi | casi | cuasi | quasi | quasi | almost |
| dicere | dezir | dicire | dicir | dicir/icir | dicer/dicir/icir | izil | dizer | dicir | idil/idel | decir | decir | dir | díser | to say |
| facere | fazer | facere | facer | ḥacer | hacel | hazel | fazer | facer | fel/ficel | hacer | fer | fer | har | to do |
| focus | fuogo | fueu | fuebu/fueu | ḥueu | ḥuigu/ḥuegu | hueu | fogo | fogo | fogu | fuego | fuego | foc | huec | fire |
| flamma | chama | chama | llama | llapa | llama | flama | chama | chama | chama | llama | flama | flama | ehlama | flame |
| legere | lher (ler in Sendinese) | lliere | lleer | leer | leyer | leel | ler | ler | leel/lel | leer | leyer | llegir | léger | to read |
| lingua | lhéngua (léngua in Sendinese) | llingua | llingua/llengua | lengua | lengua | luenga/léngua | língua | lingua | lengua | lengua | luenga | llengua | lengua | tongue/language |
| lumbum | lhombo (lombo in Sendinese) | llombu | llombu | lombu/llombu | lumu/lomu | lombu | lombo | lombo | lombu/lomu | lomo | lomo | llom | lom | loin |
| mater | mai/madre | mai | ma | madre | madri | mairi | mãe | nai | madri/mairi | madre | mai | mare | mair | mother |
| merula | mierlo/mielro | mielru | ñarbatu/mierbu | miruellu | miruilu | mielru | melro | merlo | | mirlo | merla | merla | mèrlo | blackbird |
| monstrare | amostrar | amosare | amostrar | amostrar | mostrar | muestral | mostrar | mostrar | mostral | mostrar | amostrar | mostrar | muishar | to show |
| noster | nuosso | nuesu | nuestru | nuestru | muistru | muestru/nuestru | nosso | noso | nosu | nuestro | nuestro | nostre | noste | ours |
| tussis | tuosse | tose | tose/tos | tus | tus | tossi | tosse | tose | tosi | tos | tos | tos | tos | cough |

## Recognition

Mirandese, given its status as a recognised language in Portugal after Portuguese, has been the subject in recent years of some publicity and attention in other parts of Portugal. A monthly chronicle in Mirandese, by researcher and writer Amadeu Ferreira, appears in the daily Portuguese national newspaper Público. The first volume of the Adventures of Asterix, named Asterix, L Goulés (Asterix the Gaul), was published in a Mirandese translation by Amadeu Ferreira in 2005, and sold throughout Portugal. Amadeu Ferreira also translated into Mirandese the epic poem by Camões, Os Lusíadas (Ls Lusíadas), under his pseudonym Francisco Niebro and published it in 2009. In 2011, the four Gospels of the Bible's New Testament were translated into Mirandese, and in 2013 the entire Bible was translated into the language by Domingos Augusto Ferreira.