# Table of contents

A table of contents (or simply contents, abbreviated as TOC), is a list usually part of the front matter preceding the main text of a book or other written work containing the titles of the text's sections, sometimes with descriptions.

## History

Pliny the Elder credits Quintus Valerius Soranus (d. 82 BC) as the first author to provide a table of contents to help readers navigate a lengthy work. Pliny's own table of contents for his encyclopedic Historia naturalis ("Natural History") may be viewed online in Latin and in English (following dedication).
In the early medieval era, the innovation of tables of contents had to be abandoned, due to the cost of paper. It would not be resumed until after the 12th century, when paper factories in Spain and Italy sprouted and allowed an increase in paper production throughout Europe.

## Form

The depth of detail in tables of contents depends on the length, complexity, and type of work. For books and most other large written works, tables of contents come after the title page, copyright page, and if appropriate, dedication and epigraph pages. Although they include everything after it, tables of contents never include anything before it. Depending on the complexity or length of the text, the table of contents will include the parts (groups of chapters), if applicable, chapters or section headings, and sometimes chapter or section subheadings.
Formal reports (ten or more pages and being too long to put into a memo or letter) also have a table of contents. Within an English-language book, the table of contents usually appears after the title page, copyright notices, and, in technical journals, the abstract; and before any lists of tables or figures, the foreword, and the preface.
Printed tables of contents indicate page numbers where each part starts, while digital ones offer links to go to each part. The format and location of the page numbers is a matter of style for the publisher. If the page numbers appear after the heading text, they might be preceded by characters called leaders, usually dots or periods, that run from the chapter or section titles on the opposite side of the page, or the page numbers might remain closer to the titles. In some cases, the page number appears before the text.
In the case of anthologies or other compilations of works by different authors, each section's contributors are usually listed along with the title of the section.
Matter preceding the table of contents is generally not listed there. However, all pages except the outside cover are counted, and the table of contents is often numbered with a lowercase Roman numeral page number.

## In electronic documents

Many popular word processors, such as Microsoft Word, WordPerfect, and StarWriter are capable of automatically generating a table of contents if the author of the text uses specific styles for chapters, sections, subsections, etc.
TOCs in digital books and documents can be created using bookmarks.

## Examples

Example with leaders:
Example without leaders:
Example with authors:
Example with descriptive text:

## Gallery

* A table of contents with leaders highlighted in green
* The table of contents of the scientific journal Annalen der Physik (Annals of Physics) from June 1905. Albert Einstein's groundbreaking paper on the photoelectric effect is sixth on this list.