# Constantine, Algeria

Constantine (Arabic: قسنطينة, romanized: Qusanṭīnah), also spelled Qacentina or Kasantina, is the capital of Constantine Province in northeastern Algeria. During Roman times it was called Cirta and was renamed "Constantina" in honour of Emperor Constantine the Great. Located somewhat inland, Constantine is about 80 kilometres (50 miles) from the Mediterranean coast, on the banks of the Rhumel River.
Constantine is regarded as the capital of eastern Algeria and the commercial centre of its region and has a population of about 450,000 (938,475 with the agglomeration), making it the third largest city in the country after Algiers and Oran. There are several museums and historical sites located around the city. Constantine is often referred to as the "City of Bridges" because of the numerous picturesque bridges connecting the various hills, valleys, and ravines that the city is built on and around.
Constantine was named the Arab Capital of Culture in 2015.

## History
### Ancient history

In antiquity, the city was originally called Cirta and served as the capital of the Berber kingdom of Numidia. In 112 B.C., the city was the capital of the Numidian king Jugurtha, who defeated his half-brother Adherbal. The city later served as the base for Roman generals Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus and Gaius Marius in their war against Jugurtha. Later, with the removal of King Juba I and the remaining supporters of Pompey in Africa (c. 46), Julius Caesar gave special rights to the citizens of Cirta, now known as Colonia Sittlanorum.
In 311 AD, during the civil war between emperor Maxentius and usurper Domitius Alexander (a former governor of Africa), the city was destroyed. Rebuilt in 313 AD, it was subsequently named in Latin as "Colonia Constantiniana" or "Constantina", after emperor Constantine the Great, who had defeated Maxentius. During Roman rule, the city exported wheat and was the only population center that lay on both of the Roman roads paved in ancient Algeria. Captured by the Vandals in 432, Constantine returned to the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa from 534 to 697. Following the Arab conquest of the city in the 8th century, it became known as Qacentina. The city was a part of the wider region of Ifriqiya.

### Modern history

The city recovered in the 12th century and under Almohad and Hafsid rule it was again a prosperous market, with links to Pisa, Genoa and Venice. After taking it from the Hafsids in 1529 it was intermittently part of Ottoman Empire, ruled by a Turkish bey (governor) subordinate to the dey of Algiers. Salah Bey, who ruled the city in 1770–1792, greatly embellished it and built much of the Muslim architecture still visible today. During the Ottoman reign of Constantine, merchants traded a variety of goods such as; agricultural products, animals, embroidered textiles, leather, precious metals, swords, and pistols.
In 1826 the last bey, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif, became the new head of state. He led a fierce resistance against French forces, which invaded Algeria four years later. By 13 October 1837, the territory was captured by France, and from 1848 on until 1962 it was the centre of the Constantine Département. In 1880, while working in the military hospital in Constantine, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that the cause of malaria is a protozoan. He observed the parasites in a blood smear taken from a soldier who had just died of malaria. For this, he received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. This was the first time that protozoa were shown to be a cause of disease. His work helped inspire researchers and veterinarians today to try to find a cure for malaria in animals.
In 1934, Muslim anti-Jewish riots, the 1934 Constantine Pogrom, caused the death of 23 local Jews and 3 local Muslims, 81 people were injured on both sides of the conflict.
During World War II, during the campaign in North Africa (1942–43), Allied forces used Constantine and the nearby cities of Sétif and Bone as operational bases.

## Geography

Constantine is situated on a plateau at an elevation 640 metres (2,100 ft) above sea level. The city is framed by a deep ravine and has a dramatic appearance. The city is very picturesque with a number of bridges over Rhumel River and a viaduct crossing the ravine. The ravine is crossed by seven bridges, including Sidi M'Cid bridge. Constantine is the railhead of a prosperous and diverse agricultural area. It is also a centre of the grain trade and has flour mills, a tractor factory, and industries producing textiles, wool, linen and leather goods. Algeria and Tunisia serve as its markets.

### Climate

Constantine has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), with hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters.
Climate data for Constantine (Mohamed Boudiaf International Airport) 1991–2020, extremes 1913–2020 :
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 24.0 (75.2) | 26.6 (79.9) | 32.1 (89.8) | 34.3 (93.7) | 41.3 (106.3) | 43.2 (109.8) | 44.1 (111.4) | 44.8 (112.6) | 45.5 (113.9) | 37.2 (99.0) | 29.7 (85.5) | 27.8 (82.0) | 45.5 (113.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 12.4 (54.3) | 13.2 (55.8) | 16.6 (61.9) | 19.8 (67.6) | 25.2 (77.4) | 31.0 (87.8) | 35.0 (95.0) | 34.6 (94.3) | 29.1 (84.4) | 24.3 (75.7) | 17.5 (63.5) | 13.4 (56.1) | 22.7 (72.9) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.4 (45.3) | 7.9 (46.2) | 10.7 (51.3) | 13.4 (56.1) | 17.9 (64.2) | 23.0 (73.4) | 26.6 (79.9) | 26.6 (79.9) | 22.3 (72.1) | 17.9 (64.2) | 12.0 (53.6) | 8.5 (47.3) | 16.2 (61.2) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.3 (36.1) | 2.5 (36.5) | 4.8 (40.6) | 7.0 (44.6) | 10.7 (51.3) | 15.0 (59.0) | 18.3 (64.9) | 18.5 (65.3) | 15.5 (59.9) | 11.6 (52.9) | 6.6 (43.9) | 3.6 (38.5) | 9.7 (49.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −8.8 (16.2) | −10.2 (13.6) | −6.0 (21.2) | −3.5 (25.7) | −1.4 (29.5) | 3.0 (37.4) | 7.0 (44.6) | 7.8 (46.0) | 3.3 (37.9) | −2.1 (28.2) | −3.9 (25.0) | −4.8 (23.4) | −10.2 (13.6) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 64.8 (2.55) | 54.6 (2.15) | 57.0 (2.24) | 51.6 (2.03) | 40.9 (1.61) | 14.8 (0.58) | 4.0 (0.16) | 19.4 (0.76) | 35.9 (1.41) | 39.5 (1.56) | 53.3 (2.10) | 66.2 (2.61) | 502.0 (19.76) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 8.1 | 7.7 | 7.5 | 7.0 | 5.4 | 2.8 | 1.0 | 2.4 | 4.8 | 5.2 | 6.0 | 8.1 | 66.0 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 76 | 73 | 72 | 70 | 65 | 54 | 42 | 48 | 60 | 68 | 75 | 76 | 65 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 155.0 | 155.4 | 192.2 | 210.0 | 251.1 | 315.0 | 356.5 | 303.8 | 258.0 | 213.9 | 165.0 | 148.8 | 2,724.7 |
| Mean daily sunshine hours | 5.0 | 5.5 | 6.2 | 7.0 | 8.1 | 10.5 | 11.5 | 9.8 | 8.6 | 6.9 | 5.5 | 4.8 | 7.5 |
| Source 1: NOAA ||||||||||||||
| Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes, 1913–1992, humidity, 1975–1986 and sun, 1975–1990) ||||||||||||||

## Main sights

The city is framed by a deep ravine and has a dramatic appearance. In 1911, Baedeker described it as "resembling the Kasba of Algiers, the picturesque charm of which has so far been marred by the construction of but a few new streets."
* El Bey Mosque built in 1703 also known by its post colonial name Souq El Ghezal Mosque.
* Great Mosque of Constantine historical mosque built in 1136.
* Cirta Museum, previously Gustave Mercier Museum (displays ancient and modern Algerian art)
* Abd al Hamid Ben Badis Mosque
* The Casbah (Kasbah) known locally by the name of Swika
** Emir Abdelkader University and Mosque
* Soumma Mausoleum
* Massinissa's Mausoleum
* Municipal Library of Constantine
* Ahmed Bey Palace
* Ruins of the Antonian Roman aqueduct
* Ben Abdelmalek Stadium
Nearby are
* the Roman city of Tiddis
* the megalithic monuments and burial grounds at Djebel Mazala Salluste.

### The City of Bridges

* Bridge El-Kantara, earliest photo, 1856 by John Beasley Greene
* Bridge of the Falls
* Sidi M'Cid Bridge
* Sidi Rached Bridge
* El-Kantara Bridge
* Constantine:Old city
The topography of the city is unique and it determines the need for bridges. At the end of the 19th century, Guy de Maupassant wrote: "Eight bridges used to cross this ravine. Six of these bridges are in ruins today." Today the most important bridges are:
* Sidi M'Cid Bridge (1912), a suspension bridge with a length of 168m,
* Bab El Kantra Bridge (1792) bridge which leads toward north,
* Sidi Rached bridge (1912), a long viaduct of 447ms and 27 arches, designed by Paul Séjourné,
* Devil's bridge, a tiny beam bridge,
* Falls bridge (1925), formed by a series of arches on top of a waterfall,
* Mellah Slimane Bridge (1925), a suspension bridge,
* Salah Bey Bridge (Trans-Rhummel viaduct, 2014), the first cable-stayed bridge in Constantine, designed by Dissing+Weitling architecture,
* Meddjez Dechiche Bridge

## Education

Constantine has in general four universities: two of them are downtown Constantine Mentouri Public University, designed by the Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer, and Algerian architect Rashid Hassaine, including Zerzara technical engineering pole, Zouaghi Slimane Geography and Earth Sciences Pole, and in the City of El-Khroub is the Institute of Veterinary Sciences. Emir Abdelkader University is one of the biggest Islamic universities with many faculties covering religious studies, foreign languages, and literature. Constantine's new town "nouvelle ville ali mendjeli" has two big universities: Université Constantine 2 known as "lella nsoumer" offers maths, computer and economy majors, and the new university is actually a university pole with more than 20,000 students, 17 faculties and more than 40,000 residents. It is now the largest African university under the name of "Université Salah Boubnider" known as "Université Constantine 3".

## Transport

Constantine is served by Mohamed Boudiaf International Airport.
Constantine also owns its 14.7 km-long tram network serving the city centre at the airport and the main neighbourhoods of the metropolis Constantine tramway.

## Twin towns – sister cities

Constantine is twinned with:
* Grenoble, France
* Sousse, Tunisia

## Notable people

Constantine has been the hometown of many noteworthy people in Algeria and France.
* Abdelhamid Brahimi, former Prime Minister of Algeria (1984-1988)
* Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Islamic reformer and philosopher
* Abdelmalek Sellal, former Prime Minister of Algeria two terms (2012-2014),(2014-2017)
* Ahmed Bey, the last Bey of Constantine (1826-1848)
* Ahlam Mosteghanemi, writer
* Alfred Nakache, Olympic champion swimmer and Holocaust survivor.
* Ali Saïdi-Sief, Olympic medallist
* Amar Bentoumi, lawyer, Algerian independence activist, Algerian politician
* Malek Bennabi, philosopher
* Rabah Bitat, the third President of Algeria (1978)
* Sabri Boukadoum, former Minister of foreign affairs and acting Prime Minister
* Mouloud Hamrouche, former Prime Minister of Algeria (1989-1991)
* Djamel Eddine Laouisset, Algerian Scholar
* Masinissa, the first King of Numidia
* Hassiba Boulmerka, athlete, first Algerian woman to win an Olympic title (1992)
* Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois, the daughter of Louis II, Prince of Monaco, and the mother of Prince Rainier III
* Roger Chauviré (1880–1957), French writer
* Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Nobel Prize winner in physics
* Sidi Fredj Halimi, Chief Rabbi and rabbinical court president
* Enrico Macias, French singer
* Cheb i Sabbah, DJ, musician and composer
* Jean-Michel Atlan, artist
* Alphonse Halimi, world champion boxer
* Kateb Yacine, writer
* Maurice Boitel, artist
* Sandra Laoura, Olympic medallist
* Malek Haddad, poet
* Moussa Maaskri, actor
* Fadéla M'rabet writer and feminist
* Cherif Guellal, Algerian diplomat, first ambassador to the USA (1963-1967)