# Jê languages

The Jê languages (also spelled Gê, Jean, Ye, Gean), or Jê–Kaingang languages, are spoken by the Jê, a group of indigenous peoples in Brazil.

## Genetic relations

The Jê family forms the core of the Macro-Jê family. Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal convincing.

## Family division

According to Ethnologue (which omits Jeikó), the language family is as follows:
* Jeikó (†)
* Northern Jê
** Apinayé (2,300 speakers)
** Mẽbengokre (Kayapó) (8,638 speakers)
** Panará (Kreen Akarore) (380 speakers)
** Suyá (350 speakers)
** Timbira (Canela-Krayô, with the Canela and Kreye dialects) (5,100 speakers)
* Central Jê
** Acroá (†)
** Xavante (9,600 speakers)
** Xerente (1,810 speakers)
** Xakriabá (†)
* Southern Jê
** Xokleng (760 speakers)
** Kaingáng
*** Kaingáng (18,000 speakers)
*** São Paulo Kaingáng (†)
*** Ingain (†)
*** Guayana (†)

### Ramirez (2015)

Internal classification of the Jê languages according to Ramirez, et al. (2015):

#### Jê

* Southern Jê (dialect continuum)
** Ingain ↔ Xokleng ↔ Kaigáng
* Northern Jê
** Jê proper (Timbira-Kayapó dialect continuum)
*** Canela-Krahô ↔ Gavião-Krĩkati ↔ Apinajé ↔ Kayapó ↔ Suyá-Tapayuna ↔ Panará-Kayapó do Sul
** Akuwẽ (various microdialects)
*** Xavante
*** Xerente (including Xakriabá, Akroá, Gueguê)
Ramirez excludes Jaikó as a possibly spurious language.

### Nikulin (2020)

According to Nikulin (2020), the internal branching of the Jê language family is as follows:

#### Jê

* Paraná
** Ingain
** Southern Jê
*** Kaingáng
*** Laklãnõ
* Cerrado
** Akuwẽ
*** Xerénte
*** Xavánte
*** Xakriabá
*** Acroá
** Goyaz Jê
*** Southern Kayapó
**** Mossâmedes dialect
**** Triângulo dialect
***** Panará
*** Northern Jê
**** Timbíra
***** Parkatêjê; Kỳikatêjê
***** Core Timbíra
****** Krikati; Pykobjê
****** Krahô; Canela (dialects: Apànjêkra, Mẽmõrtũmre)
**** Trans-Tocantins
***** Apinajé
***** Trans-Araguaia
****** Mẽbêngôkre (dialects: Xikrín, Kayapó)
****** Tapajós
******* Kĩsêdjê
******* Tapayúna
Some sound changes and lexical innovations that define various Jê subgroups:
* Proto-Southern Jê *a < *Proto-Jê *ô
* Proto-Cerrado *wa < Proto-Jê *ô
* Proto-Goyaz Jê: *am, *um, *ɨm > *ãm, *ũm, *ɨ̃m
** Proto-Northern Jê: replacement of *kakũm ‘dry season’ (as in Panará akũŋ and Proto-Central Jê transl. mis – transl. '*wahum) with *aŋgrə
** Proto-Timbíra: *c > *h
** Proto-Trans-Tocantins: replacement of *a-mbə ‘eat (intransitive)’ with *ap-ku

## Varieties

Below is a full list of Jê language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.

## Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.
| Language | Branch | head | eye | tongue | hand | one | two | three |
| Mehín | Timbirá I | i-xreː | ntó | i-yotó | i-nuxrá | püti | ibiaklüte | inklüt |
| Tajé | Timbirá I | pá-krẽ | ntó | pá-yõtó | pá-ushrá | | | |
| Krenjé | Timbirá I | í-xu | ntó | pá-yõtó | pá-ükra | mbuchíd | ibyashüd | nkri |
| Remkoka-Mekran | Timbirá I | pa-krãn | pa-ntó | pa-ñató | pa-nukra | puchite | hibiakruke | inkri |
| Aponegikran | Timbirá I | i-kra | i-nthó | i-ñoto | i-ninkráy | hapuchiti | ipiakautu | inkré |
| Krenkatajé | Timbirá I | | | hõ-ató | hõ-krá | buchití | daikrut | donkré |
| Sakamekran | Timbirá II | i-krã | i-tó | yontou | u-krá | | | |
| Purekamekran | Timbirá II | i-klan | | i-notho | | | | |
| Makamekran | Timbirá II | i-kran | ñóto | i-nontó | ñukrá | püchit | äklúte | glé |
| Apinagé | Timbirá II | is-kran | i-nto | ñoto | ñukra | pushi | adkrúte | adrun-ati |
| Karaho | Timbirá II | i-kran | i-nto | yoto | ñukra | ita | ökrüd | inkrä |
| Menren | Timbirá II | pa-kran | i-tó | | i-yukrá | pitit | emkröt | enkrí |
| Kayapó | Kayapó I | i-kran | i-ntó | i-ñoto | i-nikra | pudi | amaikrut | |
| Iraamráire | Kayapó I | krã | no | i-ñoto | nikra | púdi | amaikrut | |
| Gorotiré | Kayapó II | krã | nó | ñótó | nikra | püdyi | amaigru | |
| Duludi | Kayapó II | | hueh-noh | hue-nohdoh | hue-nigrah | | | |
| Metotíre | Kayapó II | i-kran | i-nó | i-ñotó | i-nikra | | | |
| Gradaú | Kayapó II | i-kran | i-naká | i-ñoto | i-nikra | podzyi | ameikrut | |
| Xikrí | Kayapó II | krãn | nó | ontó | nikrá | pudí | amaikrut | amaikrutkieket |
| Usikrin | Kayapó II | | no | | | | | |
| Southern Kayapó | Kayapó II | i-ikran | i-ntó | tsuto | shikria | | | |
| Kapiekran | Krao | | | | ñukrá | | | |
| Krahó | Krao | krãn | hitó | hioptó | nikrá | puchite | hibiakruke | nkri |
| Piokobjé | Krao | nkrãn | ntó | to | nkrá | pechäte | hibiakrót | nkri |
| Krikati | Krao | i-krã | i-tó | | i-yukrá | itá pochet | netá ipekrot | itá ikri |
| Suyá | Eastern | wa-kurá | woa-ndó | wã-notó | wa-ñikó | | | |
| Xavante | Eastern | da-kän | da-to | da-nonto | dé-iperé | simisi | maipoänä | skudaton |
| Xerente | Eastern | da-krãn | da-tó | da-noitó | da-nipikra | shimishi | poñkámen | mepráne |
| Xakriabá | Eastern | da-kran | da-toman | | da-shipigrá | hemerotong | prané | eskumantong |
| Akroá | Eastern | ai-krán | aí-nthó | aso-inthó | as-subkrá | | | |
| Jeicó | Jeicó | grang-blá | a-lepú | ä-netá | ä-nänong | | | |
| Language | Branch | water | fire | sun | jaguar | tapir | bow |
| Mehín | Timbirá I | kú | kühü | pud | erb | kuxrüd | xúhi |
| Tajé | Timbirá I | kú | kúhü | püt | oróp | kuxüd | kúhi |
| Krenjé | Timbirá I | kú | kúxü | püd | orób | kukrüdn | kúhi |
| Remkoka-Mekran | Timbirá I | kó | kuxú | pud | oróbo | kukrúte | kuːhí |
| Aponegikran | Timbirá I | kó | koxʔhó | pútu | orópa | | |
| Krenkatajé | Timbirá I | | goxé | put | oropi | | kuhé |
| Sakamekran | Timbirá II | ko | | put | | | kuhẽ |
| Purekamekran | Timbirá II | gó | kuhü | put | rop | guklüthe | |
| Makamekran | Timbirá II | gó | köyhé | büt | róp | kokreyuti | kuché |
| Apinagé | Timbirá II | inkó | kukuvu | buré | robo | koklüte | gutye |
| Karaho | Timbirá II | kó | kukuvu | put | robo | kokräti | kuhä |
| Menren | Timbirá II | ko | koró | putiri | orótuk | kokrét | kuhẽ |
| Kayapó | Kayapó I | ngo | kuwú | mut | róp | kukrot | dzyuzyé |
| Iraamráire | Kayapó I | no | kuö | mút | rob | kukrüt | dzyudzye |
| Gorotiré | Kayapó II | ngó | kuwü | mud | rob | kukrüd | dyúdye |
| Duludi | Kayapó II | | | | | | |
| Metotíre | Kayapó II | ingo | kua | mut | rokronre | kukrut | dudzye |
| Gradaú | Kayapó II | ngo | kui | mut | rab | kukrit | dzyudzyä |
| Xikrí | Kayapó II | ngou | kuã | maːt | róp | | diudieː |
| Usikrin | Kayapó II | ngo | kóã | mud | rokrari | kokrít | derätukä |
| Southern Kayapó | Kayapó II | piñkó | ichiú | itputi | napiá | idzhúta | ishé |
| Kapiekran | Krao | ku | kusshi | amikru | | | |
| Krahó | Krao | kó | kuvrú | amkró | rob | kutkrút | |
| Piokobjé | Krao | kó | kahó | amkró | ropkro | kokrät | kohé |
| Krikati | Krao | ko | kuhẽ | ankró | | | |
| Suyá | Eastern | ngo | kustó | múrru | rauití | kukrit | tuté |
| Xavante | Eastern | kö | kushe | budu | hú | kuhodu | kumikã |
| Xerente | Eastern | kö | kuzé | bedö | rhúkú | kudu | komikan |
| Xakriabá | Eastern | kü | kuché | stakró | ukú | kutó | komekané |
| Akroá | Eastern | | kuchio | put | hukutu | kuäté | |
| Jeicó | Jeicó | | ping | xügkrá | kolunong | xkünoniang | |

## Proto-language
### Nikulin (2020)

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020):
    glossProto-Jê ‘foot’*par ‘arm, branch’*pañ ‘tree, wood, firewood’*pĩm ‘to rub, to clean’*põ ‘to leave.PL’*pôc ‘to fart’*pê/*pê-k ‘hungry, to want’*prə̃m’ ‘coal, ember’*prʏ ‘road’*pry (~ *pryn) ‘wife’*prũ ‘to hear, to understand’*mba ‘liver’*mba ‘to be afraid’*-mbaŋ’ ‘DAT’*mə̃ ‘to grab, to carry’*mbə̂ ‘tail’*mbyn ‘celestial body’*mbyt ‘good’*mbec ‘PL; with’*mẽ ‘liquid’*mbên ‘husband’*mbɪn’ ‘to go.PL’*mũ ‘ashes’*mbrə ‘ant’*mbrʊm’ ‘relative by marriage’ (kinship term)*mbre ‘to walk’*wa ‘to take, to carry’*wy ‘to untie’*wô ‘to fly.SG’*tə ‘tongue’*ñũctə ‘INSTR’*tə̃ ‘strong, hard’*tə̂t ‘to die’*ty ‘capybara’*k(r)Vmtym’ ‘black, dark’*tyk ‘fat’*tom’ ‘old’*tʊm’ ‘to carry’*tu ‘horsefly’*potu ‘NEG’*tũ ‘to go.SG’*tẽ ‘to dream’*peti ‘to send’*jandə ‘eye’*ndəm ‘mother’*nə̃ ‘to lie.SG’*nõ ‘bad or crooked’*pondʊ (~ *pondʊn) ‘to hit’*ra ‘wing; armpit’*jara ‘celestial body’*roñ ‘to transport liquid or to pour’*ru ‘to leave, to abandon’*re ‘to throw.PL’*rẽ ‘root’*jarê (~ *jarên) ‘to weed’*-rê(C) ‘to look’*rĩt ‘to weave’*cy ‘seed’*cym ‘to eat soft food, to suck’*cô ‘leaf’*côj ‘nest’*jacê ~ *jVmcê ‘bandage, sling’*-cĩ(C) ‘to chew’*kapnĵa ‘bee, bumblebee’*nĵy ‘to hang.SG’*nĵô ‘to tickle’*nĵê ‘to stand.SG’*ja ‘to put vertically.SG’*ja ‘nose’*ñĩja ‘to eat.INTR, food’*jañ ‘bitter’*jə̂ ‘smoke’*ñĩjə̂ ‘urine’*jʏ ‘to sit.SG’*ñỹ ‘tooth’*jo ‘salt’*kVjo ‘to tear, to rip’*jô ‘pus’*jʊ ‘postposition’*jʊ ‘father’*jʊm’ ‘to hide’*peju ‘to heat, to dry’*nĵu ‘to sleep’*ũt/*ñũt ‘thread, knot, cloth’*jê (~ *jên) ‘female breast’*ñũmjê(C) ‘vein’*kujêk ‘to lay.SG’*ji ‘name’*jiji ~ *ñĩji ‘meat’*ñĩ ‘hand (in compounds)’*ñĩ(m)- ‘basket’*kaj’ ‘skin, bark’*kyñ ‘lip’*jar-kyñ ‘to dig’*ko ‘mouth’*jar-ko ‘sky’*kVñko ‘fly, mosquito’*kôp ‘tree, horn’*kôm ‘horn’*ñĩ-kôm ‘wind’*kôk ~ *ka-kôk ‘to eat’*kʊ ‘stone’*kẽt ‘NEG’*kêt ‘pit’*kɪj ‘to split’*kɪ ~ *kɪj ~ *kɪj’ ‘offspring’*kra ‘macaw’*krat ‘head’*krỹñ ‘knee’*jVkrỹñ ‘chin, beak’*krot ‘hole’*kre ‘to plant’*kre ‘thigh’*krɪñ ‘to push against, to grind’*ŋə̃(C) ‘feather, hair’*ŋgoñ’ ‘louse’*ŋgô ‘to push against, to crumble’*ŋũ ‘to enter.PL’*ŋgɪ ‘toucan’*ŋrũ (~ *ŋrũn) ‘egg’*ŋgre ‘to dance’*ŋgre ‘wrap’*ŋrĩ(C)
For a more complete list of Proto-Jê reconstructions, as well as Proto-Southern Jê reconstructions, see the corresponding Portuguese article.

### Ribeiro & van der Voort (2010)

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010):
    glossProto-Jê ‘relational prefix’*j- ‘dative’*mã ‘to open’*kje ‘wing’*j-ar ‘mouth’*j-arkua ‘mouth’*j-ar- ‘head’*krã ‘feather’*j-ar ‘path’*prɨ ‘causativizer’*-n ‘chief’*paʔi ‘to suck’*so ‘to catch’*wɨ ‘to eat, to bite’*ku ‘body’*hǝ ‘to sing, to dance’*ŋrɛ ‘to lay’*j-i, *s-i ‘hard’*tǝt ‘to stand’*j-am ‘thorn’*j-ĩ ‘to speak’*wẽ ‘fart’*pek ‘tree, wood, horn’*ko ‘wood, firewood’*pĩ ‘ashes, dust’*mrɔ ‘to wash’*pe ‘tongue’*j-õtɔ ‘hand’*j-ĩ- ‘hand’*ɲ-ĩkra ‘to kill’*wĩ ‘nest’*j-ase ‘bone’*si ‘to hear, to know’*ma ‘egg’*ŋrɛ ‘stone’*kɛn ‘skin, bark’*kɨ ‘to plant’*krɛ ‘1st person’*ĩj- ‘2nd person’*a- ‘3rd person’*ĩ- ‘3rd person’*s- ‘pus’*j-u, *j-ur ‘tail’*mɨ ‘root’*j-are ‘seed’*sɨ ‘to sit’*j-ã ‘hunger’*prãm ‘earth’*pɨka ‘to come’*tẽm