# Ket language

The Ket (/ˈkɛt/ KET) language, or more specifically Imbak and formerly known as Yenisei Ostyak (/ˈɒstiæk/ OSS-tee-ak), is a Siberian language long thought to be an isolate, the sole surviving language of a Yeniseian language family. It is spoken along the middle Yenisei basin by the Ket people.
The language is threatened with extinction—the number of ethnic Kets that are native speakers of the language dropped from 1,225 in 1926 to 537 in 1989. According to the UNESCO census, this number has since fallen to 150. A 2005 census reported 485 native speakers, but this number is suspected to be inflated. According to a local news source, the number of remaining Ket speakers is around 10 to 20. Another Yeniseian language, Yugh, has recently become extinct.

## History
### Documentation

The earliest observations about the language were published by Peter Simon Pallas in 1788 in a travel diary (Путешествия по разным провинциям Русского Государства, Puteshestviya po raznim provintsiyam Russkogo Gosudarstva). Matthias Castrén was one of the last known to study the Kott language. Castrén lived beside the Kan river with five people of Kott, in which is believed were the last remaining people who spoke the language. In 1858, Castrén published the first grammar and dictionary (Versuch einer jenissei-ostjakischen und Kottischen Sprachlehre), which also included material on the Kott language. During the 19th century, the Ket were mistaken for a tribe of the Finno-Ugric Khanty. A. Karger in 1934 published the first grammar (Кетский язык Ketskij jazyk), as well as a Ket primer (Букварь на кетском языке Bukvar' na ketskom jazyke), and a new treatment appeared in 1968, written by A. Kreinovich.

### Decline and current use

Ket people were subjected to collectivization in the 1930s. In the 1950s and 1960s, according to the recollections of informants, they were sent to Russian-only boarding schools, which led to the ceasing of language transmission between generations. Now, Ket is taught as a subject in some primary schools, but only older adults are fluent and few are raising their children with the language. Kellog, Russia, is the only place where Ket is still taught in schools. Special books are provided for grades second through fourth but after those grades there is only Russian literature to read that describes Ket culture. There are no known monolingual speakers as of 2006. A children's book, A Bit Lost by Chris Haughton, was translated into the language in 2013. Alexander Kotusov was a Ket folk singer and poet who died in 2019.
Only three localities, Kellog, Surgutikha and Maduika, retain a native Ket-speaking population in the present day. Other villages such as Serkovo and Pakulikha were destroyed in the second half of the 20th century, dispersing the local Ket population to nearby towns.

## Dialects

Ket has three dialects: Southern, Central and Northern. All the dialects are very similar to each other and Kets from different groups are able to understand each other. The most common southern dialect was used for the standardized written Ket.
The three remaining Ket-majority localities natively speak different dialects. Southern Ket is spoken in Kellog, Central Ket in Surgutikha and Northern Ket in Maduika.

## Phonology
### Vowels

| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i | ɨ [ɯ] | u |
| Mid | e~ɛ | ə~ʌ | o~ɔ |
| Open | a | a | a |
* 1 2 The normally open-mid /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are pronounced as close-mid [e] and [o], respectively, when they have the high-steady tone.
* ↑ /a/ freely varies between [æ], [a], [ɐ], and [ɑ].
Georg classifies [ɛ], [ɔ], [ʌ] and [æ] as marginal phonemes.

### Consonants

Vajda analyses Ket as having only 12 consonant phonemes:
| | | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | ŋ | | |
| Plosive | voiceless | | t | | k | q | |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | | | | |
| Fricative | central | | s | ç | | | h |
| Fricative | lateral | | ɮ | | | | |
It is one of the few languages to lack both /p/ and /ɡ/, along with Arapaho, Goliath, Obokuitai, Palauan, and Efik, as well as classical Arabic and some modern Arabic dialects.
There is much allophony, and the phonetic inventory of consonants is essentially as below. This is the level of description reflected by the Ket alphabet.
| | | | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | ŋ | | |
| Plosive | Plosive | voiceless | p | t | | k | q | ʔ |
| Plosive | Plosive | voiced | b | d | | ɡ | ɢ | |
| Fricative | central | voiceless | | s | ç | (x) | (χ) | h |
| Fricative | central | voiced | β | | ʝ | ɣ | ʁ | |
| Fricative | lateral | lateral | | ɮ | | | | |
| Flap | Flap | Flap | | ɾ | | | | |
| Trill | Trill | Trill | | r | | | | |
Furthermore, all nasal consonants in Ket have voiceless allophones at the end of a monosyllabic word with a glottalized or descending tone (i.e. [m, n, ŋ] turn into [m̥, n̥, ŋ̥]), likewise, [ɮ] becomes [ɬ] in the same situation. Alveolars are often pronounced laminal and possibly palatalized, though not in the vicinity of a uvular consonant. /q/ is normally pronounced with affrication, as [𐞥χ].

### Tone

Descriptions of Ket vary widely in the number of contrastive tones they report: as many as eight and as few as zero have been counted. Given this wide disagreement, whether or not Ket is a tonal language is debatable, although recent works by Ket specialists Edward Vajda and Stefan Georg defend the existence of tone.
In tonal descriptions, Ket does not employ a tone on every syllable but instead uses one tone per word. Following Vajda's description of Southern Ket, the five basic tones are as follows:
| Tone name | Glottalized | High-even | Rising falling | Falling | Rising high-falling |
| Tone contour | [˧˦ˀ] (34’) | [˥] (5) | [˩˧.˧˩] (13.31) | [˧˩] (31) | [˩˧.˥˧] (13.53) |
| Example | кеʼт [kɛˀt] 'person' | сюль [súl] 'blood' | сюуль [su᷈ːl] ([sǔûl]) 'hand sled' | ӄай [qâj] 'elk' | бънтан [bʌ̌nta᷇n] 'mallard duck' |
The glottalized tone features pharyngeal or laryngeal constriction, or a full glottal stop that interrupts the vowel.
Georg's 2007 description of Ket tone is similar to the above, but reduces the basic number of tonemes to four, while moving the rising high-falling tone plus a variant to a class of tonemes only found in multisyllabic words. With some exceptions caused by certain prefixes or clitics, the domain of tones in a multisyllabic word is limited to the first two syllables.

## Orthography

In the 1930s a Latin-based alphabet was developed and used:
| A a | Ā ā | Æ æ | B ʙ | C c | D d | E e | Ē ē |
| Ə ə | F f | G g | H h | Ꜧ ꜧ | I i | Ī ī | J j |
| K k | L l | Ļ ļ | M m | N n | Ņ ņ | Ŋ ŋ | O o |
| Ō ō | P p | Q q | R r | S s | Ş ş | T t | U u |
| Ū ū | V v | Z z | Ƶ ƶ | Ь ь | | | |
In the 1980s a new, Cyrillic-based, alphabet was created:
| А а | Б б | В в | Г г | Ӷ ӷ | Д д | Е е | Ё ё |
| Ж ж | З з | И и | Й й | К к | Ӄ ӄ | Л л | М м |
| Н н | Ӈ ӈ | О о | Ө ө | П п | Р р | С с | Т т |
| У у | Ф ф | Х х | Ц ц | Ч ч | Ш ш | Щ щ | Ъ ъ |
| Ә ә | Ы ы | Ь ь | ʼ | Э э | Ю ю | Я я | |
| Cyrillic | Latin | IPA |
| А а | A a | a |
| Б б | B b | b |
| В в | V v | v |
| Г г | G g | g, ɣ |
| Ӷ ӷ; Г̡ г̡ | | ɢ, ʀ |
| Д д | D d | d |
| Е е | E e | e, ɛ |
| Ё ё | Ē ē | ə, jɔ |
| Ж ж | Ƶ ƶ | ʐ |
| З з | Z z | z |
| И и | I i | i |
| Й й | Ī ī | j |
| К к | K k | k |
| Ӄ ӄ | Q q | q |
| Л л | L l; Ļ ļ | l; lʲ |
| М м | M m | m |
| Н н | N n; Ņ ņ | n; nʲ |
| Ӈ ӈ | Ŋ ŋ | ŋ |
| О о | O o | ɔ |
| Ө ө | Ō ō | o |
| П п | P p | p |
| Р р | R r | r; rʲ |
| С с | S s; Ș ș | s; sʲ |
| Т т | T t | t |
| У у | U u | u |
| Ф ф | F f | f |
| Х х | H h | h, x |
| Ц ц | | t͡s |
| Ч ч | | t͡ʂ |
| Ш ш | | ʃ |
| Щ щ | | ɕ |
| Ъ ъ | | ʌ |
| ʼ | | ◌ˀ |
| Ә ә | Ə ə | ə |
| Ы ы | Ь ь | ɨ |
| Ь ь | | ◌ʲ |
| Э э | | ɛ |
| Ю ю | | u, ju |
| Я я | | a, ja |

## Morphology

Nouns have nominative basic case (subjects and direct objects) and a system of secondary cases for spatial relations. The three noun classes are: masculine, feminine and inanimate.
Unlike neighbouring languages of Siberia, Ket makes use of verbal prefixes. Ket has two verbal declensions, one prefixed with d- and one with b-. The second-person singular prefixes on intransitive verbs are [ku-, ɡu-].
Ket makes significant use of incorporation. Incorporation is not limited to nouns, and can also include verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and bound morphemes found only in the role of incorporated elements. Incorporation also occurs as both a lexicalized process – the combination of verb and incorporate being treated as a distinct lexical element, with a meaning often based around the incorporated element – and a paradigmatic one, where the incorporation is performed spontaneously for particular semantic and pragmatic effect Forms of incorporation include:
* Nominal incorporation, most commonly used to describe the instrumental part of an action, but sometimes used to describe patients instead. Instrumental incorporation does not affect the transitivity of the verb (though there are examples where this form of incorporation is used to describe agentless changes of state), while patient incorporation can make a transitive verb intransitive. Patient incorporation is usually used for patients that are wholly effected by an action (such as being brought into existence by it); more generally affected patients are typically incorporated only when significantly defocused or backgrounded.
* Verbal incorporation, more specifically the incorporation of verbal infinitives (rather than roots) into the verb complex. This form of incorporation is used to signify aspect and form causatives. Incorporated infinitives may bring incorporated elements of their own into the verb as well.
* Adjectival incorporation, with an incorporated adjective describing the target or final state of an action.
* Adverbial incorporation, where a local adverb is used to describe the direction or path of a movement.Ket is classified as a synthetic language. Verbs use prefixes, while suffixes are rare. Nevertheless, incorporation is well-developed.
The division between morphemes is based on fusion. Sandhi are common as well. The basic word order is subject-object-verb SOV. The name marking is of Ezāfe-type, the same as in predication.

### Number

Ket has two grammatical numbers, the singular and plural. This is usually expressed by the presence or absence of -n (individuated plural) or -ŋ (collective plural), the plural suffixes. The old singulative suffix -s is present on certain singular forms, however, like the stem tɨˀs 'stone' > təˀŋ 'stones'. Some shape-classifying suffixes have developed and are mildly productive.

### Noun declension

hīk "man" (masculine noun) :
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | hīk-Ø | hīk-en-Ø |
| Genitive | hīk-da | hīk-en-na |
| Dative | hīk-daŋa | hīk-en-naŋa |
| Benefactive | hīk-data | hīk-en-nata |
| Ablative | hīk-daŋal | hīk-en-naŋal |
| Adessive | hīk-daŋta | hīk-en-naŋta |
| Locative | - | - |
| Prosecutive | hīk-bes | hīk-en-bes |
| Instrumental | hīk-as | hīk-en-as |
| Abessive | hīk-an | hīk-en-an |
| Translative | hīk-esaŋ | hīk-en-esaŋ |
| Vocative | hīk-ó | hīk-en-ə́ |
qīm "woman" (feminine noun) :
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | qīm-Ø | qīm-n-Ø |
| Genitive | qīm-di | qīm-n-di |
| Dative | qīm-diŋa | qīm-n-diŋa |
| Benefactive | qīm-dita | qīm-n-dita |
| Ablative | qīm-diŋal | qīm-n-diŋal |
| Adessive | qīm-diŋta | qīm-n-diŋta |
| Locative | - | - |
| Prosecutive | qīm-bes | qīm-n-bes |
| Instrumental | qīm-as | qīm-n-as |
| Abessive | qīm-an | qīm-n-an |
| Translative | qīm-esaŋ | qīm-n-esaŋ |
| Vocative | qīm-ə́ | qīm-n-ə́ |
doˀn "knife" (neuter noun) :
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | doˀn-Ø | dón-aŋ-Ø |
| Genitive | dón-di | dón-aŋ-di |
| Dative | dón-diŋa | dón-aŋ-diŋa |
| Benefactive | dón-dita | dón-aŋ-dita |
| Ablative | dón-diŋal | dón-aŋ-diŋal |
| Adessive | dón-diŋta | dón-aŋ-diŋta |
| Locative | dón-ka | dón-aŋ-ka |
| Prosecutive | dón-bes | dón-aŋ-bes |
| Instrumental | dón-as | dón-aŋ-as |
| Abessive | dón-an | dón-aŋ-an |
| Translative | dón-esaŋ | dón-aŋ-esaŋ |
| Vocative | - | - |

## Lexicon
### Loanwords

Ket has many loanwords from Russian, such as mora 'sea'; there are also loanwords from other languages such as Selkup, for example: the word qopta 'ox' comes from the Selkup word qobda. Ket also has some Mongolian words, such as saˀj 'tea' from Mongolian tsaj. There are also words from Evenki, for example: the word saˀl 'tobacco' is probably borrowed from Evenki sâr 'tobacco'.

## Sample text

Dotam, a Ket fairy tale :
| Ket | English translation |
| Báàt báàmas dolin dolin. Buŋnaŋt həna hyˀb obilda. Buŋ saˀŋ bat oŋon hyˀb qā bat datobaqn. Bīs uska bat dinbesn sáàŋna kəjgan binaŋ bilan hyˀbdat taŋa sáàŋna buleŋ bat tobaqn. Buŋna hyˀb bat dilden saŋna buleŋ bənən dub. Buda obaŋ sī bat tolaŋan. Bu sī dugde bat dilden. Dotam báàm dainbes hybda hȳj qibas dausbiltet tuliŋ əla dabutoblej. Hybda amaŋ qonoqs hilaŋtesin. Buŋna hybda iŋgij bənsaŋ. Dotam báàm daoldoq. Báàt bada báàmo. Attas qā kasnam. Báàm attas qā dakajnam. Báàt attas dobni. Dotam báàmdiŋa ogon. Dotam báàm attasas daltetna. Dotam báàm kəjga dilunbet binda uska dinbes. Báàmdiŋa həna bimnij dotam báàmdi huˀn dainbes mana abaŋa maramsanka qətgetin amdi kəjga adat ām daesilaq. Báàt ajataŋabinsaŋ attasas dotam báàmdi huˀn diqej. Báàt ogon dotam báàm bobse diqej. Dotam báàmt báàt digdoqon. Báàt dotam báàmdi báàtdaŋa bada atas dəŋon sien qadij u at ildoq. Dotət báàt báàtas hissyjdiŋa ogon. Oksdaŋal sakətləŋ hando tyndiŋa dobilda ūl datbijaq boˀk bilbet tyˀn daŋqimna. Dotət báàtdaŋa bada qibo kado tyˀn aks kaqan. Dotət báàt bat koldo haj bat koldo. Báàt tyˀn kajnam áàŋ tyˀn dotət báàtda ədiŋa datbijaq. Dotət báàt boˀk daoldoq. Báàt bylda daŋqej. Báàt bindada báàmas digdaqan. | An old man and an old woman lived and lived. They had a little son. They went to hunt squirrels, leaving their son at home. They came home in the evening, ate the squirrel heads themselves, leaving only the squirrel paws for their son. Their son cried, he does not eat squirrel paws. His parents went to bed at night. He cried the whole night. The old woman Dotam came, cut her son's belly in half, pulled out the intestines, put them in the fire, and ate her son. The parents got up in the morning. There was no rustle of their son. The old woman Dotam ate him. The old man said: "Old woman! Take [=bring] the spear home." The old woman took the spear home. The old man sharpened the spear. He went to Dotam the old woman. He struck the old woman Dotam with a spear. He broke the old woman's head and returned home himself. A little later, the old woman's daughter Dotam came to the old woman and said: "Give me some maramsanka [grass], my mother has a headache, my mother has passed away." The old man got angry and killed the old woman's daughter with the spear of the old woman Dotam. The old man went and killed the old woman Dotam completely. The old man stayed with the old woman Dotam. The old man said to the old woman Dotam: "Come with me to eat, then you can eat me." The old man Dotet went into the forest with the old man. He chopped some wood chips from a tree, put them in a cauldron, poured water, made a fire, and boiled the cauldron. He said to the old man Dotet: "Uncle, look how the cauldron is boiling!" Old man Dotet looked and looked some more. The old man took the cauldron and poured the hot cauldron on old man Dotet. The fire burned [=ate] old man Dotet. The old man killed everyone. The old man stayed with his old woman. |

### Examples of sentences

* bu du-taRɔt 'He lies/sleeps';
* ətn en dʌŋ-ɔtn 'We are walking already';
* bu ətn d-il'-daŋ-s' 'He attracted us'.