# Cerrado languages

The Cerrado languages (also referred to as Amazonian Jê$^{:549}$) are a branch of the Jê languages constituted by the Goyaz Jê languages and Akuwẽ (Central Jê).$^{:14–5}$

## Sound changes from Proto-Jê to Proto-Cerrado

The occurrence of the consonant */g/ in Proto-Cerrado (as in */g/õt ‘to sleep’, */g/õ ‘to give’, */g/aj’ ‘you’) is believed to be an innovation; it has been claimed to have been inserted in onsetless-stressed syllables.$^{:85}$
The Proto-Cerrado diphthongs *wa and *ja are believed to continue Proto-Jê monophthongs, which have been reconstructed as *ô and *ê₂. Other vowels which have been claimed to have innovated in Proto-Cerrado are:$^{:88}$
* *ô (goes back to an unrounded vowel, reconstructed as Proto-Jê *ə̂₁);
* *u (a merger of earlier *u₁ and *u₂, distinguished in the Southern Jê languages as o and u, respectively);
* *ũ (a merger of earlier *ũ₁ and *ũ₂, distinguished as ũ and ỹ in Kaingang and as ũ and õ in Laklãnõ);
* *ə̃ (a merger of earlier *ə̃ and *ỹ, distinguished as ỹ and ĩ in Kaingang and as õ and ẽ in Laklãnõ);
* all vowels in the Proto-Jê unstressed syllables of the shape *pV- were neutralized in the Cerrado languages: Proto-Cerrado *pᵊ- (> Proto-Goyaz Jê *py-/*pu-, Proto-Akuwẽ *pi-).

## Sound changes from Proto-Cerrado to the daughter languages
### Onsets

The simple onset inventory of Proto-Cerrado is */p m w t n ɾ c ɲ j k ŋ g/, and the only complex onsets are */pɾ mɾ kɾ ŋɾ/.$^{:158–63}$
Their reflexes in the daughter branches are shown below.
| Proto-Cerrado | Proto-Cerrado | Proto-Goyaz Jê | Proto-Goyaz Jê | Proto-Akuwẽ | Proto-Akuwẽ | Proto-Akuwẽ | Proto-Akuwẽ |
| oral nucleus | nasal nucleus | oral nucleus | nasal nucleus | oral nucleus (Proto-Cerrado non-high vowel) | oral nucleus (Proto-Cerrado high vowel) | before a diphthong | nasal nucleus |
| *p */p/ | *p */p/ | *p */p/ | *p */p/ | *p */p/ | *b */b/ | N/A | *m */b/ |
| *mb */m/ | *m */m/ | *mb */m/ | *m */m/ | *p */p/ | *b */b/ | N/A | *m */b/ |
| *pr */pɾ/ | *pr */pɾ/ | *pr */pɾ/ | *pr */pɾ/ | *pr */pɾ/ | N/A | N/A | *mr */bɾ/ |
| *mbr */mɾ/ | *mr */mɾ/ | *mbr */mɾ/ | *mr */mɾ/ | *pr */pɾ/ | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| *w */w/ | *w */w/ | *b */b/ | *b */b/ | *w */w/ | *w */w/ | *w */w/ | *w */w/ |
| *t */t/ | *t */t/ | *t */t/ | *t */t/ | *t */t/ | *d */d/ | *∅ | *n */d/ |
| *nd */n/ | *n */n/ | *nd */n/ | *n */n/ | *t */t/ | N/A | N/A | | *n */d/ |
| *r */ɾ/ | *r */ɾ/ | *r */ɾ/ | *r */ɾ/ | *r */ɾ/ | *r */ɾ/ | *∅ | *r */ɾ/ |
| *c */c/ | *c */c/ | *c */c/ | *c */c/ | *c */c/ | *ĵ */ɟ/, *h */h/ (before *i) | *∅ | *c */c/ |
| *nĵ */ɲ/ | N/A | *nĵ */ɲ/ | N/A | *c */c/ | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| *j */j/ | *ñ */j/ | *ĵ (stressed)/*j (unstressed) */ĵ/ | *ñ */ĵ/ | *ĵ */ĵ/, *c */c/ (before *i) | *ĵ */ĵ/, *c */c/ (before *i) | *k */k/ | *ñ */ĵ/ |
| *k */k/ | *k */k/ | *k */k/ | *k */k/ | *k */k/ (unstressed *ka- > *wa-) | *h */h/ | *∅ | *k */k/ |
| *ŋg */ŋ/ | *ŋ */ŋ/ | *ŋg */ŋ/ | *ŋ */ŋ/ | *k */k/ (unstressed *ka- > *wa-) | *h */h/ | *∅ | N/A |
| *kr */kɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | *h */h/ | *∅ | *kr */kɾ/ |
| *ŋgr */ŋɾ/ | *ŋr */ŋɾ/ | *ŋgr */ŋɾ/ | *ŋr */ŋɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | *h */h/ | *∅ | N/A |
| *g */g/ | *g */g/ | *g */g/ | *ŋ */g/ | *g */g/ | N/A | N/A | N/A |

### Nuclei

The inventory of the Proto-Cerrado monophthongs is reconstructed as follows.
| oral | oral | oral | nasal | nasal | nasal |
| *i */i/ | *y */ɨ/ | *u */u/ | *ĩ */ĩ/ | *ỹ */ɨ̃/ | |
| *ê */e/ | *ə̂ */ɘ/ | *ô */o/ | | | |
| *e */ɛ/ | *ə */ɜ/ | *o */ɔ/ | *ẽ */ɛ̃/ | *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | *õ */ɔ̃/ |
| | *a */a/ | | | | |
In addition, two diphthongs can be reconstructed, */wa/ and */ja/.
The following table shows the usual reflexes of the Proto-Cerrado nuclei in Proto-Goyaz Jê and in Proto-Akuwẽ. The latter group shows a chain vowel shift known as the Akuwẽ/Central Jê vowel shift.$^{:61}$$^{:164}$
| Proto-Cerrado | Proto-Goyaz Jê | Proto-Akuwẽ |
| *a */a/ | *a */a/, *ã */ã/ (before *-m’) | *a */a/ |
| *ə */ɜ/ | *ə */ɜ/ | *e */ɛ/, *ê */e/ (before a dental coda) |
| *ə̂ */ɘ/ | *ə̂ */ɘ/ | *e */ɛ/, *ê */e/ (before a dental coda) |
| *y */ɨ/ | *y */ɨ/, *ə */ɜ/ (after a velar onset), *ỹ */ɨ̃/ (before *-m’) | *ə */ə/ |
| *o */ɔ/ | *o */ɔ/ | *o */ɔ/ |
| *ô */o/ | *ô */o/ | *u */u/ |
| *u */u/ | *u */u/, *ũ */ũ/ (before *-m’) | *u */u/ |
| *wa */wa/ | *wa */wa/, *û */u$^a$/, *wə̂ */wɘ/ (in closed syllables) | *wa */wa/ |
| *e */ɛ/ | *e */ɛ/ | *ê */e/ |
| *ê */e/ | *ê */e/ | *i */i/ |
| *i */i/ | *i */i/ | *i */i/ |
| *ja */ja/ | *jê */je/, *î */i$^a$/ | *ĵa */ɟa/ |
| *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | *ə̃ */ə̃/ |
| *ỹ */ɨ̃/ | *ỹ */ɨ̃/ | *ə̃ */ə̃/ |
| *õ */ɔ̃/ | *õ */ɔ̃/ | *õ */ɔ̃/ |
| *ẽ */ɛ̃/ | *ẽ */ɛ̃/ | *ẽ */ɛ̃/ |
| *ĩ */ĩ/ | *ĩ */ĩ/ | *ĩ */ĩ/ |