# Paul de Lagarde

Paul Anton de Lagarde (2 November 1827 – 22 December 1891) was a German biblical scholar and orientalist, sometimes regarded as one of the greatest orientalists of the 19th century. Lagarde's anti-Semitism, anti-Slavism, and aversion to traditional Christianity are viewed as having been among the most influential precursors of Nazism.

## Life & Career

Paul Bötticher was born in Berlin to Johann Friedrich Wilhelm and Luise Bötticher. His father was a philologist who taught languages at the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium. 18-year old Luise died days after Paul was born. A bereft Wilhelm blamed his newborn son for the loss and treated him miserably. His woeful upbringing led him to feel nothing upon his father's death.$^{:4–5}$ Two maternal aunts nurtured Paul emotionally and financially. Ernestine de Lagarde was Luise's aunt, and she eventually adopted Paul.$^{:6}$
Bötticher attended Humboldt University of Berlin from 1844–6 where he studied Oriental languages, theology, and philosophy under professors like Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg, who was a friend of his father. His primary mentor was Friedrich Rückert. He attended the University of Halle-Wittenberg from 1846–7.
In 1852, Bötticher received a 1,000 thaler grant from King Frederick William IV to study abroad. He used it to travel to London to work at the British Museum.$^{:19–20}$ On his way home in January 1853, Bötticher stayed in Paris to work in the Bibliothèque nationale. He relied on Ernest Renan to check out manuscripts for him.$^{:32}$ The Syriac texts he studied while abroad led to the publication of Didascalia apostolorum syriace in 1854.
That year, Bötticher married Anna Berger.$^{:45}$ He also decided to change his name to honor his mother's family and to move past his painful childhood.$^{:16}$ He had already published several volumes under his birth name.
In 1855, Paul de Lagarde taught languages at Köllnisches Gymnasium in Berlin where his duties included teaching gymnastics. He continued to publish scholarly work, much of it at his own expense. In 1858, he transferred to the Friedrichswerdersches Gymnasium. In 1866, he was given three years leave for research. In 1869, he took over Heinrich Ewald's professorship of oriental languages at the University of Göttingen.
The decade it took to become a professor deepened the bitterness Lagarde already felt over his childhood. He was dogmatic and distrustful of others. Lagarde shunned professional affiliations and frequently attacked colleagues and peers. In a letter to Adolf Hilgenfeld, Lagarde described himself as an "anchorite", simultaneously lamenting and imposing his self-isolation.
Lagarde was diagnosed with colon cancer in 1891 and kept the diagnosis secret. He had an operation to treat it on December 19. It was unsuccessful, and he died three days later.$^{:115–9}$ His own eulogist, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, described Lagarde as a lonely man who sowed the wind and reaped the storm.

## Scholarship

Paul de Lagarde wrote on a broad range of topics, moving fluidly between multiple languages. His main focus was elucidation of the Bible.
Wilhelm Bötticher was also a prolific scholar, and Lagarde loathed the assembly-line nature of his father's writing. Ironically, he would be similarly overproductive, writing many works that were underbaked.$^{:13}$ A bibliography of his work was prepared in 1892, and it ran to eighteen pages.
Lagarde edited the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Karlsruhe, Prophetae chaldaice (1872), the Hagiographa chaldaice (1874), an Arabic translation of the Gospels, Die vier Evangelien, arabisch aus der Wiener Handschrift herausgegeben (1864), a Syriac translation of the Old Testament Apocrypha, Libri V. T. apocryphi syriace (1865), a Coptic translation of the Pentateuch, Der Pentateuch koptisch (1867), and a part of the Lucianic text of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from manuscripts for nearly half the Old Testament.
He was also a student of Persian, publishing Isaias persice (1883) and Persische Studien (1884). In 1880, de Lagarde attempted to reconstruct a Syriac version of Epiphanius' treatise, On Weights and Measures, which he entitled, Veteris Testamenti ab Origene recensiti fragmenta apud Syros servata quinque. Praemittitur Epiphanii de mensuris et ponderibus liber nunc primum integer et ipse syriacus (Gootingae 1880). He followed up his Coptic studies with Aegyptiaca (1883), and published many minor contributions to the study of oriental languages in Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1866), Symmicta (1. 1877, ii. 1880), Semitica (i. 1878, ii. 1879), Orientalia (1879–1880) and Mittheilungen (1884). Mention should also be made of the valuable Onomastica sacra (1870; 2nd ed., 1887).

## Political writing

Lagarde was a member of the Prussian Conservative Party until 1849 when it fabricated evidence of treason against Benedikt Waldeck. He became deeply disenchanted and politically unaligned.$^{:8}$$^{:12–3}$ In his mid-40s, Lagarde began to write cultural criticism and gave occasional speeches. He eventually collected his essays in Deutsche Schriften (German Literature, 1878–1881).$^{:27}$
He postulated a national religion in his first political treatise Über das Verhältnis des deutschen Staates zu Theologie, Kirche und Religion. (On the Relationship of the German State to Theology, Church and Religion). He felt the state's most important task was to create a climate in which this national religion could flourish. Meanwhile, he obliged those who had faith in God to a radical morality wherein they distinguish solely between "duty or sin" in their every action. In addition, first a formal language must be developed for the religiosity of these newborn men.$^{:74–5}$
He concludes his 1875 book, Über die gegenwärtige Lage des deutschen Reichs (On the Current Situation of the German Reich):$^{:167}$
   Germany is the totality of all German-feeling, German-thinking, German-willing Germans: In this sense, every one of us is a traitor if he does not consider himself personally acountable in every moment of his life for the existence, fortune and future of the fatherland, and each is a hero and liberator if he does.
Lagarde despised the bland version of Christianity that he knew and dreamed of a nationalistic religion. He was conversant with Adolf Stoecker, the founder of the anti-Semitic Berlin Movement. He also showed interest in folkish-anti-Semitic societies such as the Deutscher Volksverein of Bernhard Förster and Max Liebermann von Sonnenberg, as well as the Deutschsoziale Partei of Theodor Fritsch. To the latter, he established contact in 1886 by sending his treatise Die nächsten Pflichten deutscher Politik (The Coming Tasks of German Politics), at the core of which he considered to be a German policy of settlement in Eastern Europe.$^{:253}$
He considered Jews to be the greatest barrier to German unification, whereas he simultaneously avowed the concept of a German colonization of southeastern Europe and proposed that the Jewish population settled there at the time be resettled to Palestine or Madagascar. The only alternatives for Lagarde were the total assimilation or emigration of the Jews.$^{:62f}$ He also despised Slavs and wrote, "the sooner they perish the better it will be for us and them".
In his 1887 essay "Jews and Indo-Germanics", he wrote: “One would have to have a heart of steel to not feel sympathy for the poor Germans and, by the same token, to not hate the Jews, to not hate and despise those who – out of humanity! – advocate for the Jews or are too cowardly to crush these vermin. Trichinella and bacilli would not be negotiated with, trichinella and bacilli would also not be nurtured, they would be destroyed as quickly and as thoroughly as possible."
In addition to his influence on anti-Semitism and anti-slavism, Lagarde is also of importance to the formation of German imperialist thought. In this regard, he concentrated on German border colonization within Europe rather than the acquisition of overseas colonies. This bears a close resemblance to the later concept of German Lebensraum most notably espoused by Friedrich Ratzel. In 1875, Lagarde maintained that the primary objective of German politics was the "gradual Germanization of Poland." Since he was concerned about how many Germans emigrated in their search for land, he advocated a border colonizing land acquisition for the peasantry, which he considered the "true foundation of the state." This land acquisition aimed to create a Mitteleuropa under German leadership "that reaches from the Ems to the mouth of the Danube, from the Neman to Trieste, from Metz to about the Bug."$^{:173f}$

## Works
### As Paul Boetticher

* Horae aramaicae. Berlin: prostat apud C. Grobe, 1847.
* Rudimenta Mythologiae Semiticae Supplementa Lexici Aramaici. Berlin: G. Thome, 1848.
* Initia Chromatologiae Arabicae. Berlin: Excudebant Trowitzschius et filius, 1849.
* Arica. Halle: J.F. Lippert. 1851.
* Hymns of the Old Catholic Church of England. Halle: J.F. Lippert. 1851.
* Acta Apostolorum. Halle: J.F. Lippert. 1852.
* Epistulae Novi Testamenti, Coptice. Halle: E. Anton. 1852.
* Wurzelforschungen. Halle: J.F. Lippert. 1852.

### As Paul Lagarde

* Zur Urgeschichte der Armenier: Ein philologischer Versuch. Austria, W. Hertz, 1854.
* Didascalia Apostolorum Syriace. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1854.
* Der Pentateuch Koptische. Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1867.
* Armenische Studien. Göttingen: Dieterich’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1877.
As editor:
* Alcalá, Pedro de. Petri Hispani de Lingua Arabica libri duo. Göttingen: Arnoldi Hoyer, 1883.
In Deutsche Schriften (1878–81; 4th ed., Göttingen, 1903), he attempted to involve himself in politics. It deals with the position of the German state relative to theology, the church and religion.

## Legacy

Lagarde was the most renowned Septuagint scholar of the nineteenth century. A 1920 handbook of Septuagint studies concluded that Lagarde's work set the modern standard for the field. Shortly after his death, The New York Times described Lagarde as "the most remarkable writer on Semitic studies that the world has ever known". Lagarde bequeathed his library to the Royal Society of Sciences in Göttingen. When John Dyneley Prince was alerted that it was for sale and would immediately bestow the owner with the best Oriental library in America, he arranged for New York University to purchase it for $7,000 in 1893.
In 1894, Lagarde's wife Anna published many of his letters in a memoir of her husband.$^{:1}$
Deutsche Schriften was widely read by figures like Thomas Mann and Theodor Heuss. In his 1918 book, The New Europe, Tomáš Masaryk regards Lagarde as one of the leading philosophical and theological spokesmen of Pan-Germanism, and furthermore describes Heinrich von Treitschke as its historian, Wilhelm II as its politician and Friedrich Ratzel as its geopolitical geographer. In all of them he saw the representatives of the imperialistic "German Drang nach Osten" that threatened the Slavic countries.
Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg was heavily influenced by Lagarde's writings. Rosenberg's notion of positive Christianity directly descended from Lagarde.
Fritz Stern zeroed in on the aimless nature of Lagarde's political writings:
   "He wrote as a prophet; he neither reasoned nor exposited, but poured out his excoriations and laments, his intuitive truths and promises. There was nothing limpid or systematic in his work; within each essay he skipped from subject to subject, alternating abstract generalities and concrete proposals. The pervasive mood of the book was despair and the dominant tone a kind of whiny heroism."$^{:27}$