OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Logarithmic decrement

Logarithmic decrement, $\delta$, is used to find the damping ratio of an underdamped system in the time domain.
The method of logarithmic decrement becomes less and less precise as the damping ratio increases past about 0.5; it does not apply at all for a damping ratio greater than 1.0 because the system is overdamped.

## Method

The logarithmic decrement is defined as the natural log of the ratio of the amplitudes of any two successive peaks:
    $\delta ={\frac {1}{n}}\ln {\frac {x(t)}{x(t+nT)}}$
where x(t) is the overshoot (amplitude - final value) at time t and x(t + nT) is the overshoot of the peak n periods away, where n is any integer number of successive, positive peaks.
The damping ratio is then found from the logarithmic decrement by:
    $\zeta ={\frac {\delta }{\sqrt {4\pi ^{2}+\delta ^{2}}}}$
Thus logarithmic decrement also permits evaluation of the Q factor of the system:
    $Q={\frac {1}{2\zeta }}$
    $Q={\frac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {1+\left({\frac {n2\pi }{\ln {\frac {x(t)}{x(t+nT)}}}}\right)^{2}}}$
The damping ratio can then be used to find the natural frequency ω$_n$ of vibration of the system from the damped natural frequency ω$_d$:
    $\omega _{d}={\frac {2\pi }{T}}$
    $\omega _{n}={\frac {\omega _{d}}{\sqrt {1-\zeta ^{2}}}}$
where T, the period of the waveform, is the time between two successive amplitude peaks of the underdamped system.

## Simplified variation

The damping ratio can be found for any two adjacent peaks. This method is used when n = 1 and is derived from the general method above:
    $\zeta ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+\left({\frac {2\pi }{\ln \left({\frac {x_{0}}{x_{1}}}\right)}}\right)^{2}}}}$
where x$_0$ and x$_1$ are amplitudes of any two successive peaks.
For system where $\zeta \ll 1$ (not too close to the critically damped regime, where $\zeta \approx 1$).
    $\zeta \approx {\frac {\ln \left({\frac {x_{0}}{x_{1}}}\right)}{2\pi }}$

## Method of fractional overshoot

The method of fractional overshoot can be useful for damping ratios between about 0.5 and 0.8. The fractional overshoot OS is:
    $\mathrm {OS} ={\frac {x_{p}-x_{f}}{x_{f}}}$
where x$_p$ is the amplitude of the first peak of the step response and x$_f$ is the settling amplitude. Then the damping ratio is
    $\zeta ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+\left({\frac {\pi }{\ln(\mathrm {OS} )}}\right)^{2}}}}$
# Man and Beast (1917 film)

Man and Beast is a 1917 American silent adventure film directed by Henry MacRae and starring Harry Clifton, Eileen Sedgwick and L.M. Wells.

## Cast

* Harry Clifton as Carl von Haagen
* Eileen Sedgwick as Gretel von Haagen
* L.M. Wells as Mr.Townsend
* Mattie Witting as Mrs. Townsend
* J. Parks Jones as Ned Townsend
* Kingsley Benedict as Eitel van Haagen
# Sandall railway station

Sandall railway station served the suburb of Kirk Sandall, South Yorkshire, England, from 1857 to 1859 on the Doncaster to Thorne section of the South Yorkshire Railway.

## History

The station was opened in April 1857 by the South Yorkshire Railway. It was only open on Saturdays. It was a very short-lived station, only being open for two years before closing in September 1859.
# Ghisonaccia Alzitone Airport

Ghisonaccia Alzitone Airport (ICAO: LFKG) is an airport in France, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of Ghisonaccia in the Haute-Corse department, approximately 61 km (38 mi) southeast of Corte on Corsica.
The airport is used for general aviation, with no commercial airline service.

## World War II

During World War II, Ghisonaccia Airfield was a military airfield used by the United States Army Air Forces. It was an all-weather temporary field built in late 1943 by the XII Engineer Command using Marsden Matting for runways and parking areas, as well as for dispersal sites. In addition, tents were used for billeting and also for support facilities; an access road was built to the existing road infrastructure; a dump for supplies, ammunition, and gasoline drums, along with a drinkable water and minimal electrical grid for communications and station lighting. It was turned over to the Twelfth Air Force for operational combat use. Known units assigned to the airfield were:
* HQ 57th Bombardment Wing, 20 April-5 October 1944
* 310th Bombardment Group, 10 December 1943 – 7 April 1945, B-25 Mitchell
* 414th Night Fighter Squadron, (Twelfth Air Force), 9 January-4 February 1944; 20 March–July 1944, Bristol Beaufighter
* 417th Night Fighter Squadron, (Twelfth Air Force), 7 January–February 1944, (Ground echelon only)
After the war ended, the airfield was turned over to local authorities. Today the military airfield has been developed into a small, regional airport used by small aircraft.
# Pravin Rathod

Pravinbhai Jinabhai Rathod is an Indian politician and former Member of legislative assembly from Palitana and belonging to Indian National Congress party. In 2014, he won the Congress primaries for Bhavnagar Lok Sabha constituency by 303 votes. Rathod belongs to the Koli caste of Gujarat, India.
# Pravin Rai Mahal

25°21′06″N 78°38′41″E﻿ / ﻿25.35167°N 78.64472°E﻿ / 25.35167; 78.64472
Pravin Rai Mahal is a palace in Madhya Pradesh built by prince (and later King) Indrajit Singh in 1618. It was built for his love interest, Pravin Rai, who was a beautiful poet and musician, also known as the "Nightingale of Orchha". It is a state protected monument. The other names of this palace are Anand Mandal Bagh and Rai Praveen Manika Bhavan. It is also known as 'Tope Khana' since later in time, it was used as a lookout post for Orchha Fort.

## Architecture

The palace has three stories. There is a central hall on the second floor with multiple paintings and depictions of various moods of Pravin Rai. There is also a garden attached to the palace which is divided into two parts. The palace has a large mansion, and alongside, it has small chambers with large windows. There is good lighting and circulation of air.
The palace's semi-subterranean summer room has been measured cooling its air to more than 10 degrees below exterior temperatures, using passive cooling.

## Legend of Pravin Rai

Pravin Rai was a favourite courtesan of King Indrajit Singh of Orchha State. It is said that Emperor Akbar summoned Pravin Rai to his court after hearing about her beauty and poetry. Pravin Rai reached the court and said a couplet,
“Vinit Rai Praveen ki, suniye sah sujan. Juthi patar bhakat hain, bari, bayas, swan”
It translated to - 'Oh you great and wise! Please hear the plea of Rai Praveen. Only someone from a low caste, barber or scavengers would eat from a plat that was partaken by someone else'. With this, she indicated that she was already in love with Indrajeet. Akbar was impressed from this and she was sent back to Indrajeet with respect. Rai Praveen is the central character in Sudheer Maurya's Hindi Novel Indrapriya.
# Macroplea appendiculata

Macroplea appendiculata is a species of leaf beetle of the subfamily Donaciinae which can be found in Northern and Central Europe.

## Description

Beetle length is 5.5–8.5 millimetres (0.22–0.33 in), and is orange. The first segment of hind tarsi much shorter than the second. Notum almost square. Thorn on top of elytron is long and thin. The head and shield with a red-yellow hairs, prothorax and elytra have a yellow color, the points in the grooves between rows, and often prominent on elytra back.

## Ecology

Beetles are found near rivers and lakes, they feed on generally pondweed (Potamogeton) and Myriophyllum plants.
# Pragmatic mapping

Pragmatic mapping — a term in current use in linguistics, computing, cognitive psychology, and related fields — is the process by which a given abstract predicate (a symbol) comes to be associated through action (a dynamic index) with some particular logical object (an icon). The logical object may be a thing, person, relation, event, situation, or a string of these at any conceivable level of complexity. A relatively simple example is the conventional — successful, appropriate, and mundanely “true” — linking of a proper name to the person of whom it is a conventional designation.
There are three parts to this process when it succeeds. There is the abstract symbol which is used to represent something else (the name or the entire signifying predication, for instance); there is the something else that is represented by that symbol (whatever is signified); and there is the act of using the symbol in a conventional way to represent whatever it usually represents (the act of signifying). Pragmatic mapping is the process by which any material argument, or any imagined one, comes to be associated with a predicate that purports to be and succeeds in being about it. That is the predicate must be appropriate ("true" in the most mundane sense relative) to its logical object. The predication may be as simple as a naming act or as complex as a representation consisting of many distinct propositions with many associated clauses.
For instance, if we say "Jesse James was an American outlaw" the name "Jesse James" purports to be about a certain historical person whom we may know to have been shot by another individual named Robert Ford. We may know that a movie featuring Brad Pitt as Jesse James was released in September 2007 in select theaters across America. If the pragmatic mapping of the name "Jesse James" is complete, i.e., if it succeeds, it is mapped onto that certain individual that was actually shot by Robert Ford.
Nothing of importance changes in the pragmatic mapping process if it turns out that Jesse James and Robert Ford are figments of someone’s imagination, excepting, of course, the truth value of the propositions that include the logical object of the name, Jesse James. In ordinary conversation and human communication in general, it has been demonstrated logically and mathematically that meaning is utterly dependent on the true and appropriate pragmatic mapping of symbols to their conventional logical objects. Infants depend on exemplification of such mapping relations to acquire languages and all meaningful linguistic representations have been proved to depend on such mappings.
# Preemptive analgesia

Preemptive analgesia is an antinociceptive treatment that prevents the sensing of a change of state in nociceptors which would otherwise register as pain. The idea was formulated at the beginning of the 20th century on the basis of clinical observations.
It was suggested that the use of regional blocks in addition to general anesthesia would prevent the sensation of pain during the surgery, thereby preventing the formation of scars caused by changes in the central nervous system during surgery. The idea was brought back with a series of animal studies in the early 1980s. Despite controversy that mainly centers around the definition of the term preemptive analgesia, a clear change in opinion has emerged in favor of the importance of operative inflammation.
# Ravine (disambiguation)

A ravine is a landform.
Ravine may also refer to:
* Ravine, Pennsylvania, U.S., a census-designated place
* Ravine, a locality in Yellowhead County, Alberta, Canada
* The Ravine, a 1969 film by Paolo Cavara
* The Ravine (novel), a 2008 novel by Paul Quarrington
* "Ravine", a song by Ace of Base from The Bridge, 1995
# Madan Bahadur Hari Bahadur

Madan Bahadur Hari Bahadur (Nepali: मदनबहादुर हरिबहादुर) was a Nepali sitcom television series. Hari Bansha Acharya and Madan Krishna Shrestha were the script writer, director, and the main characters. The show aired on Nepal Television. Integrating political and social topics into a comedy drama, Madan Bahadur Hari Bahadur was one of the most viewed programs in Nepal. The series ended in 2010. Hari Bahadur's character is very popular and widely loved among Nepali people, it is considered one of the funniest in the country's entertainment industry. Other comedians frequently imitate this character on their shows.

## Synopsis

Madan Bahadur (Madan Krishna Shrestha) and Hari Bahadur (Hari Bansha Acharya) home village is the subject of the show. Hari Bahadur is notorious for his misdeeds, whereas Madan Bahadur is a well-liked individual. Hari Bahadur frequently attempts to accomplish something unethically, and his methods are always incredibly humorous.

## Cast

* Madan Krishna Shrestha as Madan Bahadur
* Hari Bansha Acharya as Hari Bahadur
* Mishree Thapa as Madan Bahadur's wife
* Roshani Sapkota as Putali (Hari Bahadur's wife)
* Raju Bhuju as Lahure
* Sharmila Sharma as Lahurini
* Siru Bista as Madan Bahadur's daughter-in-law
* Kiran KC as Policeman
* Neer Shah as Policeman
* Shivahari Poudel as Hotel Sahu
* Sandip Chettri as Social activist
* Shishir Rana as Thug
* Kamal Gaule as Dalal
# Prem Ya Paheli – Chandrakanta

Prem Ya Paheli – Chandrakanta is an Indian Hindi language fantasy television show, produced and directed by Nikhil Sinha. The show stars Kritika Kamra and Gaurav Khanna in lead roles. The show is produced by Triangle Film Company and is inspired by the popular 1888 Hindi novel Chandrakanta by Devaki Nandan Khatri. The dialogue writer for the show is Shailesh Pratap singh The show telecasted on Life OK from 4 March 2017 on Saturday-Sunday at 9 pm. First promo of the show was released on 8 February 2017. A special sequence of the show was also shot at the Golkonda Fort in Hyderabad. Show went off-air abruptly on 27 August 2017.

## Plot

The show is inspired by the novel Chandrakanta. The show starts when a king successfully possesses all the powers of the world and stores and locks those powers to keep anyone from trying to steal the powers. He and his wife die after another king attacks them. 100 years later, the king and his wife are reborn. The show then follows the story of the prince and princess falling in love and rediscovering the Tilism, in spite of facing a lot of trouble created by Prince Shivdutt who is considered as the rightful owner of the "Tilism".

## Cast

* Kritika Kamra as Princess Chandrakanta / Maharani Chandrika
* Gaurav Khanna as Prince Virendra Singh / Maharaj Harshvardhan
* Sudesh Berry as Marich
* Ankit Arora as Crown Prince Shivdutt
* Iris Maity as Bichhoo Kanya Shyamala / Rajkumari Taramati
* Chandan K Anand as Kroor Singh
* Harsh Vashisht as Maharaj Jai Singh
* Gungun Uprari as Maharani Ratnagarbha
* Sandeep Mohan as Maharaj Surendra Singh
* Jaswinder Gardner as Maharani Padvika
* Manasvi Vyas as Maharani Kamini
* Puneet Vashisht as Badrinath
* Jitendra Bohara as Aiyyar Nazim
* Abhishek Avasthi as Aiyyar Ahmed
* Sumit Arora as Aiyyar Zakir
* Bibriti Chatterjee as Aiyyara Chapla
* Sonal Shrotriya as Aiyyara Champa
* Shailesh Datar as Pandit Jagannath
* Rohit Choudhary as Prince Jai Aditya
* Sunny Sachdeva as Aiyyar Devgiri
* Nikunj Malik as Soundarya
* Patrali Chattopadhyay as Parijaat
* Rahul Trivedi as Jhumroo
* Abhilash Chaudhary as Yakshraj Param
* Michelle Shah as Yakshini Siyali / Mansi
* Zeeshan Ahmed Khan/Ankur Nayyar as Tej Singh
# Prem Vivah

Prem Vivah is a 1979 Indian Hindi-language film directed by Basu Chatterjee and produced by Ramraj Nahta, starring Mithun Chakraborty, Bindiya Goswami, Utpal Dutt and Asha Parekh.

## Plot

Asha Parekh plays an unmarried woman in her 30s, past what society considered the marriageable age. Her younger sister played by Bindiya Goswami has a fiancée Mithun Chakraborty. She feels guilty that she is about to have a happy married life, while her older sister will be all alone by herself. She sets out to find a husband for her. When she sees her sister admire Utpal Dutt on television, she brings him into their lives. Unfortunately, Utpal Dutt falls for Bindiya Goswami and isn't aware that Asha Parekh has fallen in love with him. How Bindiya untangles herself from this situation and gets Utpal Dutt and Asha Parekh together forms the rest of the story.

## Cast

* Asha Parekh ... Neela
* Mithun Chakraborty ... Ajay
* Bindiya Goswami ... Deepa
* Utpal Dutt ... Dr. Bhaskar
* Deven Verma ... Guest Appearance

## Crew

* Director – Basu Chatterjee
* Producer – Ramraj Nahta
* Screenplay – Basu Chatterjee
* Cinematographer – A. K. Bir
* Editor – V. N. Mayekar
* Costumes Designer – Leena Daru, Mani Rabadi
* Choreographer – Oscar, Vijay
* Music Director – Laxmikant–Pyarelal
* Lyricist – Anand Bakshi
* Playback Singers – Lata Mangeshkar, Amit Kumar, Anuradha Paudwal, Kishore Kumar, Shailendra Singh

## Soundtrack

Laxmikant-Pyarelal has composed music with lyrics by Anand Bakshi.
| Song | Singer |
| "Kaga Mera Ek Kaam Karna" | Lata Mangeshkar |
| "Jinke Aane Se Pehle Sharm Aa Gayi" | Lata Mangeshkar |
| "Milte Rahiye, Milne Se Dil Mil Jayenge" | Kishore Kumar, Amit Kumar |
| "Prem Hai Jeevan, Prem Hai Yauvan" | Anuradha Paudwal, Shailendra Singh |
# Presidencia Roca

Presidencia Roca is a village and municipality in Chaco Province in northern Argentina.
# Prajila

Prajila is a commune in Floreşti District, Moldova. It is composed of four villages: Antonovca, Frunzești, Mihailovca and Prajila.
47°50′N 28°12′E﻿ / ﻿47.833°N 28.200°E﻿ / 47.833; 28.200
# Rayavaram, Medak district

Raya-varam is a village in the district of Medak in the state of Telangana, India.
# Raymond, Haiti

Raymond is a village in the Aquin commune of the Aquin Arrondissement, in the Sud department of Haiti.
# Razon

Razon is a Spanish surname, meaning "reason". Notable people with the surname include:
* Alfredo Fernando Razon Gonzalez (born 1978), Filipino footballer
* Avelino Razon (born 1952), Filipino police officer and politician
* Daniel Razon (born 1967), the current Overall Servant of the Members Church of God International
* Delia Razon (born 1931), Filipina actress
* Enrique K. Razon (born 1960), Filipino billionaire
* Henedina Razon (1955–2017), Filipina politician
* Martin Ramon Razon Nievera (born 1962), Filipino singer and television host
# Machrihanish railway station

Machrihanish was a railway station in the village of Machrihanish, Argyll and Bute, serving the town. The Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway was a 2 ft 3 in (686 mm) narrow gauge railway in Kintyre, Scotland, between the towns of Campbeltown and Machrihanish.

## History

The station had a small wooden station building with a corrugated iron roof that slightly projected at the front to provide shelter, no platforms and only a run round loop for the locomotive. It was situated near the seaside village and the local hotel, now largely built over. The station site remains largely undeveloped .
Upgraded from a coal carrying mineral lined and opened for passenger traffic in 1906, the railway did not have stations as such, just places where the train halted to pick up passengers. Many of the passengers were day trippers from Glasgow as a turbine steamer would bring passengers to Campbeltown early enough to catch a train to Machrihanish and allow a return journey all in one day. The next stop on the railway was Trodigal Halt.
Only three other passenger-carrying lines in the UK operated on the same gauge, all of them in Wales - the Corris Railway, the short-lived Plynlimon and Hafan Tramway and the Talyllyn Railway.
| Preceding station | Disused railways | Following station |
| Trodigal Halt | Campbeltown to Machrihanish Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway | Terminus |
# Presencio

Presencio is a municipality and town located in the province of Burgos, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 238 inhabitants. It contains the Church of San Andrés.
# Primož Čučnik

Primož Čučnik (born 1 June 1971) is a Slovene poet, editor and translator. He has published numerous poetry collections.
Čučnik was born in Ljubljana in 1971. He studied philosophy and sociology of culture at the University of Ljubljana and works as an editor at the literary journal Literatura.
He won the Prešeren Foundation Award in 2008 for his poetry collection Delo in dom and the Jenko Award in 2011 for his poetry collection Kot dar. In 2012 he won the Veronika Award for his collection entitled Mikado.

## Poetry collections

* Dve zimi (1999)
* Ritem v rôkah (2002)
* Oda na manhatanski aveniji (2003)
* Akordi (2004)
* Nova okna (2005)
* Sekira v medu:izbrane pesmi (2006)
* Delo in dom (2007)
* Kot dar (2010)
* Mikado (2012)

## Essays

* Spati na krilu (2008)
# List of mountains in Ecuador

Mountains in Ecuador :
| Name | Elevation m | Range | Notes |
| Chimborazo | 6,310 | Cordillera Occidental | Ecuador's highest mountain |
| Cotopaxi | 5,897 | Cordillera Oriental | Active Volcano |
| Cayambe | 5,790 | Cordillera Oriental | Active Volcano |
| Antisana | 5,758 | Cordillera Oriental | Active Volcano |
| El Altar/Capac-Urcu | 5,319 | Cordillera Oriental | |
| Iliniza Sur | 5,248 | Cordillera Occidental | |
| Sangay | 5,230 | Cordillera Oriental | Active Volcano |
| Iliniza Norte | 5,126 | Cordillera Occidental | |
| Tungurahua | 5,023 | Cordillera Oriental | Active Volcano |
| Carihuairazo | 5,018 | Cordillera Occidental | |
| Cotacachi | 4,944 | Cordillera Occidental | Active Volcano |
| Quilindaña | 4,912 | Cordillera Oriental | |
| Sincholagua | 4,873 | Cordillera Central | |
| Corazón | 4,790 | Cordillera Occidental | |
| Pichincha | 4,776 | Cordillera Occidental | Active Volcano |
| Chiles | 4,723 | Cordillera Occidental | Active Volcano |
| Rumiñahui | 4,722 | Interandino | |
| Imbabura | 4,621 | Interandino | |
| Cerro Hermoso | 4,571 | Cordillera Oriental | |
| Atacazo | 4,455 | Cordillera Occidental | |
| Pasochoa | 4,199 | Interandino | |
| Sumaco | 3,780 | Amazonía | |
| Reventador | 3,562 | Amazonía | Active Volcano |
# Parapediasia atalanta

Parapediasia atalanta is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Stanisław Błeszyński in 1963. It is found in Brazil.
# Pilot Township, Surry County, North Carolina

Pilot Township is one of fifteen townships in Surry County, North Carolina, United States. The township had a population of 4,085 according to the 2020 census.
Geographically, Pilot Township occupies 23.1 square miles (60 km$^2$) in eastern Surry County. The only incorporated municipality within Pilot Township is the Town of Pilot Mountain. Pilot Township is named for the landmark peak of Pilot Mountain
# Queen of Denmark (disambiguation)

A Queen of Denmark is a female Danish monarch.
Queen of Denmark may also refer to:
* Queen consort of Denmark, the wife of a reigning King of Denmark
* Queen of Denmark (album), a 2010 album by John Grant
* "Queen of Denmark", song from the above album, covered by Sinéad O'Connor on her 2012 album How About I Be Me (and You Be You)?
# Melting (disambiguation)

Melting is the process of a solid changing into a liquid.
Melting may also refer to:
* Melting (EP), an EP by Hyuna
* Melting (album), an album by Mamamoo
* "Melting", a song by King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard in Flying Microtonal Banana