# Philippine Revolutionary Army

The Philippine Revolutionary Army (Spanish: Ejército Revolucionario Filipino; Tagalog: Hukbong Tagapagbangong Puri), later renamed Philippine Republican Army, was the army of the First Philippine Republic from its formation in March 1897 to its dissolution in November of 1899 in favor of guerrilla operations in the Philippine–American War.

## History

The revolutionary army used the 1896 edition of the Spanish regular army's Ordenanza del Ejército to organize its forces and establish its character as a modern army. Rules and regulations were laid down for the reorganization of the army, along with the regulation of ranks and the adoption of new fighting methods, new rank insignias, and a new standard uniform known as the rayadillo. Filipino artist Juan Luna is credited with this design. Juan Luna also designed the collar insignia for the uniforms, distinguishing between the services: infantry, cavalry, artillery, sappers, and medics. His brother, General Antonio Luna commissioned him with the task and personally paid for the new uniforms. At least one researcher has postulated that Juan Luna may have patterned the tunic after the English Norfolk jacket, since the Filipino version is not a copy of any Spanish-pattern uniform. Infantry officers wore blue pants with two white stripes down the side, while Cavalry officers wore red trousers with two black stripes. Soldiers and junior officers wore straw hats while senior officers often wore peaked caps.
Orders and circulars were issued covering matters such as building trenches and fortifications, equipping every male aged 15 to 50 with bows and arrows (as well as bolo knives, though officers wielded European swords), enticing Filipino soldiers in the Spanish army to defect, collecting empty cartridges for refilling, prohibiting unplanned sorties, inventories of captured arms and ammunition, fundraising, purchasing of arms and supplies abroad, unification of military commands, and exhorting the rich to give aid to the soldiers.
Aguinaldo, a month after he declared Philippine independence, created a pay scale for officers in the army: Following the board, a brigadier general would receive 600 pesos annually, and a sergeant 72 pesos.
When the Philippine–American War erupted on February 4, 1899, the Filipino army suffered heavy losses on every sector. Even Antonio Luna urged Apolinario Mabini, Aguinaldo's chief adviser, to convince the President that guerrilla warfare must be announced as early as April 1899. Aguinaldo adopted guerrilla tactics on November 13, 1899, dissolving what remained of the regular army and after many of his crack units were decimated in set-piece battles.

## Weaponry

The Filipinos were short on modern weapons. Most of its weapons were captured from the Spanish, were improvised or were traditional weapons. The service rifles of the nascent army were the Spanish M93 and the Spanish Remington Rolling Block rifle. Moreover, while in Hong Kong, Emilio Aguinaldo purchased rifles from the Americans. Two batches of 2,000 rifles each including ammunition were ordered and paid for. The first batch arrived while the second batch never did. In his letters to Galicano Apacible, Mariano Ponce also sought weapons from both domestic and international dealers in the Empire of Japan. He was offered different breech-loading single-shot rifles since most nations were discarding them in favor of new smokeless bolt-action rifles. However, there was no mention of any purchase occurring. Another planned purchase was the Murata rifle from Japan but no record exists that it made its way into the hands of Filipino revolutionaries.
Crew-served weapons of the Philippine military included lantaka, Krupp guns, Hontoria guns, Ordóñez guns, Hotchkiss guns, Nordenfelt guns, Maxim guns, and Colt guns. Many of these were captured from the Spanish and the Americans. There were also improvised artillery weapons made of water pipes reinforced with bamboo or timber, which could only fire once or twice.
* The use of the Murata rifle was proposed by some revolutionaries. There was a planned purchase from Japan with the help of Japanese sympathizers.
* The Spanish Remington Rolling Block rifle was one of the first rifles used by the Filipinos during the Revolution.
* the multi-barreled Nordenfelt machine gun.
* Relics of Mauser 93 rifles used by Filipino infantry during the Philippine Revolution and Philippine–American War on display at Clark Museum.
* Bolo knives were widely available in the islands and were used extensively by the revolutionaries.

## Ranks
### Commissioned officer ranks

The rank insignia of commissioned officers.
| Rank group | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | General / flag officers | Senior officers | Senior officers | Senior officers | Senior officers | Senior officers | Senior officers | Junior officers | Junior officers | Junior officers | Junior officers | Junior officers | Junior officers | Junior officers | Junior officers |
| Shoulder insignia (1899–1901) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Sleeve insignia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| English | Generalissimo/Minister marshal | Generalissimo/Minister marshal | Captain general | Captain general | Lieutenant general | Lieutenant general | Divisional general | Divisional general | Brigadier general | Brigadier general | Colonel | Colonel | Lieutenant colonel | Lieutenant colonel | Commandant | Commandant | Captain | Captain | First lieutenant | First lieutenant | First lieutenant | Second lieutenant | Second lieutenant | Second lieutenant |
| Tagalog | Heneralisimo/Ministrong mariskal | Heneralisimo/Ministrong mariskal | Kapitán heneral | Kapitán heneral | Tenyente Heneral | Tenyente Heneral | Komandante Heneral | Komandante Heneral | Brigada Heneral | Brigada Heneral | Koronel | Koronel | Tenyente koronel | Tenyente koronel | Komandante | Komandante | Kapitán | Kapitán | Tenyente | Tenyente | Tenyente | Alpéres | Alpéres | Alpéres |
| Spanish | Generalísimo/Ministro mariscal | Generalísimo/Ministro mariscal | Capitán general | Capitán general | Teniente general | Teniente general | General de división | General de división | General de brigada | General de brigada | Coronel | Coronel | Teniente coronel | Teniente coronel | Comandante | Comandante | Capitán | Capitán | 1$^{er}$ teniente | 1$^{er}$ teniente | 1$^{er}$ teniente | 2° teniente | 2° teniente | 2° teniente |

### Other ranks

The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.
| Rank group | Senior NCOs | Senior NCOs | Senior NCOs | Senior NCOs | Senior NCOs | Senior NCOs | Junior NCOs | Junior NCOs | Enlisted | Enlisted | Enlisted | Enlisted | Enlisted | Enlisted | Enlisted | Enlisted |
| Sleeve insignia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| English | Sergeant | Sergeant | Sergeant | Sergeant | Sergeant | Sergeant | Corporal | Corporal | Soldier | Soldier | Soldier | Soldier | Soldier | Soldier | Recruit | Recruit |
| Tagalog | Sarhento | Sarhento | Sarhento | Sarhento | Sarhento | Sarhento | Kabo | Kabo | Sundalo | Sundalo | Sundalo | Sundalo | Sundalo | Sundalo | Recluta | Recluta |
| Spanish | Sargento | Sargento | Sargento | Sargento | Sargento | Sargento | Cabo | Cabo | Soldado | Soldado | Soldado | Soldado | Soldado | Soldado | Recluta | Recluta |

### Branch colors

In 1898, the Philippine government prescribed branch colors twice:
| Branch | July 30, 1898 | November 25, 1898 |
| Infantry | Black | Deep Red |
| Artillery | Red | Green |
| Cavalry | Green | Black |
| Engineer Corps | Violet | Khaki |
| General Staff | Blue | Blue |
| Military Juridical Corps | White | White |
| Commissary and Quarter-master Corps | Yellow | |
| Medical Corps | Red Cross | Yellow |
| Military Administration | | Rayadillo |
| Pharmacists | | Yellow and Violet Piping |
| Secretary of War personnel | | Blue |
| Philippine Military Academy | | Blue |
| Chaplains | | Violet |
| Signal Corps | | Hemp |

### Branch insignia

* Engineers: A castle superimposed on a diagonally crossed pickax and shovel, surmounted by a sun.
* Artillery: Crossed field guns above six cannonballs, surmounted by a sun.
* Infantry: A diagonally crossed dagger and bolo surmounted by a sun, superimposed on three concentric circles.
* Cavalry: Two crossed lances over two crossed sabers, surmounted by a sun.
* Light Infantry/Rifle battalions: Two crossed rifles with fixed bayonets surmounted by a sun, superimposed on three concentric circles. (This badge is the basis of the current PA infantry branch insignia).
* Intendancy-Quartermaster: A cockade within a wreath surmounted by a sun.
* Signals: Six lightning bolts over a semicircular wreath surmounted by a sun.
* Medical Service: A bowl of Hygieia within a wreath surmounted by a sun.

## Recruitment and conscription

During the revolution against Spain, the Katipunan gave leaflets to the people to encourage them to join the revolution. Since the revolutionaries had become regular soldiers at the time of Emilio Aguinaldo, they started to recruit males and some females aged 15 and above as a form of national service. A few Spanish and Filipino enlisted personnel and officers of the Spanish Army and Spanish Navy defected to the Revolutionary Army, as well as a number of foreign individuals and American defectors who volunteered to join during the course of the revolution.
Conscription in the revolutionary army was in effect in the Philippines and military service was mandatory at that time by the order of Gen. Antonio Luna, the Chief Commander of the Army during the Philippine–American War.

## Organization

The largest standard unit in the Filipino army according to the decree issued by President Aguinaldo on July 30, 1898 was the battalion, which varied in size depending on the province: six-company battalions in populous provinces like Cavite and Manila, four-company battalions in Morong, Bataan, and Nueva Ecija, a two-company battalion in Mindoro, and a single company in Marinduque. Soldiers were recruited voluntarily, with surplus volunteers either joining the police or forming a 3,000-strong central corps under the President. Battalions were named after their respective provinces, such as the 1st Battalion of Tayabas.

## Philippine Revolutionary Navy

The Philippine Revolutionary Navy was established during the second phase of the Philippine Revolution when General Emilio Aguinaldo formed the Revolutionary Navy. On May 1, 1898, the first ship handed by Admiral George Dewey to the Revolutionary Navy is a small pinnace from the Reina Cristina of Admiral Patricio Montojo, which was named Magdalo. The Navy was initially composed of a small fleet of eight Spanish steam launches captured from the Spaniards. The ships were refitted with 9-centimeter guns. The rich, namely Leon Apacible, Manuel Lopez and Gliceria Marella de Villavicencio, later donated five other vessels of greater tonnage, the Taaleño, the Balayan, the Bulusan, the Taal and the Purísima Concepción. The 900-ton inter-island tobacco steamer further reinforced the fleet, Compania de Filipinas (renamed as the navy flagship Filipinas), steam launches purchased from China and other watercraft donated by wealthy patriots.
Naval stations were later established to serve as ships' home bases in the following:
* Ports of Aparri
* Ports of Legaspi
* Ports of Balayan
* Ports of Calapan
* Ports of San Roque, Cavite
On September 26, 1898, Aguinaldo appointed Captain Pascual Ledesma (a merchant ship captain) as Director of the Bureau of the Navy, assisted by Captain Angel Pabie (another merchant ship captain). After passing of the Malolos Constitution the Navy was transferred from the Ministry of Foreign Relations to the Department of War (thereafter known as the Department of War and the Navy) headed by Gen. Mariano Trías.
As the tensions between Filipinos and Americans erupted in 1899 and a continued blockade on naval forces by the Americans, the Philippine naval forces started to be decimated.

## Flags and early banners of the revolution

* Official Flag of the First Philippine Republic.
* Banner of General Emilio Aguinaldo during his campaign.
* Flag of the Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
* Flag used during the Cry of Pugadlawin.
* Flag of Magdiwang faction led by Mariano Álvarez and Flag of the Magdalo faction led by Baldomero Aguinaldo.
* The flag of the Katipunan was also used in many campaigns.
* The Skull Banner by General Mariano Llanera of the republican army.
* Banner of Pio del Pilar, called the Bandila ng Matagumpay (Flag Of the Triumphants).
* Banner of General Gregorio del Pilar, which he used during his campaigns.
* Flag of "Republic of Katagalugan" established by Macario Sakay
* The supposed flag adopted by the Kakarong Republic was either the Katipunan banner or a plain red banner shown above.
* Flag of the Katipuneros of the Bicol region.
* Flag of the Revolutionary Government in Bacolod (1899), Republic of Negros.
* Flag of the Negros Revolution.

## Officers
### General officers

During the existence of the Philippine Revolutionary Army, over a hundred individuals were appointed to General Officer grades.

### Other notable officers

* General Águeda Kahabagan y Iniquinto - Commander of the Reserve Corps from April 6, 1899. The only female general in the roster.
* Colonel Agapito Bonzón
* Colonel Felipe Salvador – Commander of the Santa Iglesia faction.
* Colonel Apolinar Vélez
* Colonel Alejandro Avecilla
* Colonel Francisco "Paco" Román – Aide to Lieutenant General Antonio Luna.
* Colonel Pablo Tecson – Leader, Battle of Quingua.
* Colonel Alipio Tecson – Supreme Military Commander of Tarlac in 1900 and exiled to Guam.
* Colonel Simón Tecson – Leader of Siege of Baler; signatory of the Biak-na-Bato Constitution.
* Colonel Simeón Villa
* Colonel Luciano San Miguel
* Colonel Joaquin Luna
* Colonel José Tagle – Known for his role in the Battle of Imus.
* Lieutenant Colonel Lázaro Macapagal – Commanding officer in-charge at the execution of Andrés and Procopio Bonifacio brothers.
* Lieutenant Colonel José Torres Bugallón – Hero of the Battle of La Loma.
* Lieutenant Colonel Regino Díaz Relova – Fought as one of the heads of columns under General Juan Cailles in the Laguna province.
* Major Manuel Quezon – Aide to President Emilio Aguinaldo. Eventually succeeded him as the second president of the Philippines under the United States-sponsored Commonwealth.
* Major Eugenio Daza – Area Commander Southeastern Samar and overall Commander and chief organizer of the Balangiga Encounter.
* Major Geronimo Gatmaitan – Commanding Officer of the presidential guards responsible for the protection of the President.
* Major Juan Arce
* Captain Eduardo Rusca – Aide to Lieutenant General Antonio Luna.
* Captain Pedro Janolino – Commanding Officer of the Kawit Battalion.
* Captain Vicente Roa
* Captain Serapio Narváez – Officer of the 4th Company, Morong Battalion.
* Captain Cirilo Arenas - Captain of Maguagui (Naic), Cavite.
* Lieutenant García – one of Gen. Luna's favorite sharpshooters of the Black Guard units.
* Corporal Anastacio Félix – 4th Company, Morong Battalion the first Filipino casualty of the Philippine–American War.

### Notable officers and servicemen and their ethnic background
#### Army

* General Juan Cailles – Franco-Indian mestizo who led Filipino forces in Laguna
* General José Valesy Nazaraire – Spanish.
* Brigadier General José Ignacio Paua – Full-blooded Chinese general in the Army.
* Brigadier General Benito Natividad – Brigade Acting Commander in Vigan under General Tinio.
* Colonel Manuel Sityar – Half-Spanish Director of Academía Militar de Malolos. A former captain in the Spanish colonial army who defected to the Filipino side.
* Colonel Sebastian de Castro – Spanish director of the military hospital at Malasiqui, Pangasinan.
* Colonel Dámaso Ybarra y Thomas – Spanish.
* Lieutenant Colonel Potenciano Andrade – Spanish.
* Estaquio Castellor – French mestizo who led a battalion of sharpshooters.
* Major Candido Reyes – Instructor at the Academía Militar de Malolos. Former sergeant in the Spanish Army.
* Major José Reyes – Instructor at the Academía Militar de Malolos. Former sergeant in the Spanish Army.
* Major José Torres Bugallón – Spanish officer who served under General Luna.
* Captain Antonio Costosa – Former officer in the Spanish Army.
* Captain Tei Hara – Japanese officer who fought in the Philippine-American war with volunteer soldiers.
* Captain Chizuno Iwamoto – Japanese officer who served on Emilio Aguinaldo's staff. Returned to Japan after Aguinaldo's capture.
* A Japanese national named Tobira ("Tomvilla" in American records) who was adjutant to General Licerio Geronimo.
* Captain David Fagen – An African-American Captain who served under Brigadier General Urbano Lacuna. A former Corporal in United States Army 24th Colored Regiment.
* Captain Francisco Espina – Spanish.
* Captain Estanislao de los Reyes – Spanish aide-de-camp to General Tinio.
* Captain Feliciano Ramoso – Spanish aide-de-camp to General Tinio.
* Captain Mariano Queri – Spanish officer who served under General Luna as an instructor in the Academía Militar de Malolos and later as the director-general of the staff of the war department.
* Captain Camillo Ricchiardi – Italian.
* Captain Telesforo Centeno – Spanish.
* Captain Arthur Howard – American deserter from the 1st California Volunteers.
* Captain Glen Morgan – American who organized insurgent forces in central Mindanao.
* Captain John Miller – American who organized insurgent forces in central Mindanao.
* Captain Russel – American deserter from the 10th Infantry.
* Lieutenant Danfort – American deserter from the 10th Infantry.
* Lieutenant Maximino Lazo – Spanish.
* Lieutenant Gabriel Badelly Méndez – Cuban.
* 2nd Lieutenant Segundo Paz – Spanish.
* Lieutenant Alejandro Quirulgico – Spanish.
* Lieutenant Rafael Madina – Spanish.
* Lieutenant Saburo Nakamori – Japanese.
* Lieutenant Arsenio Romero – Spanish.
* Private John Allane – United States Army.
* Private Harry Dennis – United States Army.
* Private William Hyer – United States Army.
* Private Meeks (given name not specified) – United States Army.
* Private George Raymond – 41st Infantry, United States Army.
* Private Maurice Sibley – 16th Infantry, United States Army.
* Private John Wagner – United States Army.
* Private Edward Walpole – United States Army.
* Henry Richter – American deserter from the 9th Cavalry.
* Gorth Shores – American deserter from the 9th Cavalry.
* Fred Hunter – American deserter from the 9th Cavalry.
* William Denten – American deserter who joined General Lukban in Samar.
* Enrique Warren – American deserter who served under Francisco Makabulos in Tarlac.
* Frank Mekin - American deserter from the 37th Infantry who served as a lieutenant under General Juan Cailles.
* Earl Guenther - American deserter and canteen keeper from the 37th Infantry at the Paete garrison who served under General Juan Cailles.
* Antonio Prisco – Spanish.
* Manuel Alberto – Spanish.
* Eugenia Plona – Spanish aide-de-camp to Baldermo Aguinaldo.
* Alexander MacIntosh – English.
* William McAllister – English.
* Charles MacKinley – Englishman who served in Laoag.
* James O'Brian – English.

#### Navy

* Captain Simplicio Agoncillo Orosa - Captain of the first steam flagship of the navy, SS Bulusan.
* Captain Vicente Catalan – Captain of the Philippine Navy ship Filipinas. A Criollo from Cuba and a former member of the Spanish Navy. Admiral of the Philippine Navy.