# Láadan

Láadan (Láadan pronunciation:) is a gynocentric constructed language created by Suzette Haden Elgin in 1982 to test the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, specifically to determine if development of a language aimed at expressing the views of women would shape a culture; a subsidiary hypothesis was that Western natural languages may be better suited for expressing the views of men than women. The language was included in her science fiction Native Tongue series. Láadan contains a number of words that are used to make unambiguous statements that include how one feels about what one is saying. According to Elgin, this is designed to counter male-centered language's limitations on women, who are forced to respond "I know I said that, but I meant this".

## Phonology
### Tones

Láadan is a tonal language. It utilises two distinct tones:
* lo – /lō/ or /lò/, a short, medium or low tone, represented by a single unmarked vowel
* ló – /ló/, a short, high tone, represented by a single marked vowel
The word "Láadan" has three syllables: "lá-" with the short vowel /a/ plus high tone; "-a" with the short vowel /a/ and no tone; and "-dan".
Láadan doesn't allow any double (i.e. long) phonemes. Whenever two identical short vowels would occur side by side in a single morpheme, one of them has to be marked for high tone. When adding an affix would result in two identical vowels side by side, an epenthetic /h/ is inserted to prevent the forbidden sequence. The language will allow either máa or maá, but not *maa. These combinations can be described as:
* loó – /lǒː/, a long, low-rising tone, represented by a double vowel, the second of which is marked
* lóo – /lôː/, a long, high-falling tone, represented by a double vowel, the first of which is marked
Some people analyze these tone sequences as tonemic as well, for a total of four tones. By this analysis, the word "Láadan" would thus be considered to have two syllables, /lâː/ and /dan/.
Elgin preferred an analysis of the language as having no long vowels and a single tone, the high tone (distinguished from "neutral, baseline pitch"), but she acknowledged that linguists using other formalisms would be justified in saying that there are two tones, high and low (or unmarked or mid).

### Vowels

Láadan has five vowels:
* a – /ɑ/, an open back unrounded vowel (as English calm),
* e – /ɛ/, an open-mid front unrounded vowel (as English bell),
* i – /ɪ/, a near-close near-front unrounded vowel (as English bit),
* o – /o/, a close-mid back rounded vowel (as English home),
* u – /u/, a close back rounded vowel (as English boon).

### Consonants

| | | Labial | Dental / Alveolar | Dental / Alveolar | Postalveolar / Palatal | Glottal |
| | | Labial | central | lateral | Postalveolar / Palatal | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m /m/ | n /n/ | | | |
| Plosive | Plosive | b /b/ | d /d/ | | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | th /θ/ | lh /ɬ/ | sh /ʃ/ | h /h/ |
| Fricative | voiced | | | | zh /ʒ/ | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w /w/ | r /ɹ/ | l /l/ | y /j/ | |
Láadan lacks the consonants /p, t, k, ɡ, s, z, f, v/. It uses b, d, sh (/ʃ/), m, n, l, r, w, y (/j/), h with the same phonetic value as English. Three digraphs require further explanation:
* th – /θ/, a voiceless dental fricative (always as in English think, never as then),
* zh – /ʒ/, a voiced postalveolar fricative (as English pleasure),
* lh – /ɬ/, a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative (as Welsh llan).

## Grammar

Most Láadan sentences contain three particles:
* The speech-act particle – this occurs at the beginning of the sentence and marks it as either a statement (bíi), a question (báa), et cetera; in connected speech or writing, this particle is often omitted. They are:

### Bíi

    Indicates a declarative sentence (usually optional)

### Báa

    Indicates a question

### Bó

    Indicates a command; very rare, except to small children

### Bóo

    Indicates a request; this is the usual imperative/"command" form

### Bé

    Indicates a promise

### Bée

    Indicates a warning
* The grammatical tense particle – this occurs second in the sentence and marks it as either present tense (ril), past tense (eril), future tense (aril) or hypothetical (wil); without the tense particle, the sentence is assumed to have the same tense as the previous sentence.
* The evidence particle – this occurs at the end of statements and indicates the trustworthiness of the statement. They are:

### wa

    Known to speaker because perceived by speaker, externally or internally

### wi

    Known to speaker because self-evident

### we

    Perceived by speaker in a dream

### wáa

    Assumed true by speaker because speaker trusts source

### waá

    Assumed false by speaker because speaker distrusts source; if evil intent by the source is also assumed, the form is waálh

### wo

    Imagined or invented by speaker, hypothetical

### wóo

    Used to indicate that the speaker states a total lack of knowledge as to the validity of the matter
Láadan is a verb–subject–object (VSO) language. Verbs and adjectives are interchangeable. There are no articles, and the object is marked by the -th or -eth suffix. The plural number is shown only by the me- prefix to the verb. The particle ra following a verb makes it negative. Separate clauses are joined by the particle hé.
OBJ:object REQ:request ST
Some basic sentences in Láadan :
* bíistatementrilPRSáyabe_beautifulmahinaflowerwaobserved-truthbíi ril áya mahina wastatement PRS be_beautiful flower observed-truthThe flower is beautiful
* báaQerilPASTmesháadPL-go/comewithwomanbáa eril mesháad withQ PAST PL-go/come womanDid the women go/come?
* bíistatementrilPRSlámálastroke/caresswithwomanrulethcat-OBJwaobserved-truthbíi ril lámála with ruleth wastatement PRS stroke/caress woman cat-OBJ observed-truthThe woman strokes the cat
* bóoREQwilHYPdispeak/sayleInethyou-OBJbóo wil di le nethREQ HYP speak/say I you-OBJI would like to speak with you, please.
* bíistatementarilFUTmeleyanPL-be_brownraNEGlanemiddogwáareceived-truthbíi aril meleyan ra lanemid wáastatement FUT PL-be_brown NEG dog received-truthI hear the dogs will not be brown
* bíistatementrilPRSanknowleIhéembedded-clause-markererilPASTbethudehacave-atneyouwaobserved-truthbíi ril an le hé eril bethudeha ne wastatement PRS know I embedded-clause-marker PAST cave-at you observed-truthI know that you were at the cave

### Morphology

Láadan has an agglutinative morphology, and uses a number of affixes to indicate various feelings and moods that many natural languages can only indicate by tone of voice, body language or circumlocution.
| Affix | meaning | example |
| (-)lh(-) | disgust or dislike | hahodimi: "pleasantly bewildered"; hahodimilh: "unpleasantly bewildered" |
| du- | to try to | bíi eril dusháad le wa: "I tried to come" |
| dúu- | to try in vain to | bíi eril dúusháad le wa: "I tried in vain to come" |
| ná- | progressive aspect | bíi eril dúunásháad le wa: "I was trying in vain to come" |
| -(e)tha | natural possessor | lalal betha: "her mother's milk" |
| -(e)tho | customary or legal possessor | ebahid letho: "my husband" |
| -(e)thi | possessor by chance | losh nethi: "your money (gambling winnings)" |
| -(e)the | possessor by unknown provenance | ana worulethe: "the cats' food" |
| -(h)id | denotes male (otherwise female or gender neutral) | thul: "mother/parent"; thulid: "father" |
The speech-act particle, at the beginning of a sentence, can also carry several suffixes, which expand on the overall state of the sentence. For example, bíi begins a statement, but bíide begins a statement that is part of a narrative; bóoth begins a request made in pain; báada begins a question that is meant in jest.

### Pronouns

Pronouns in Láadan are built up from a number of constituent parts. The consonant l marks the first person, n the second person and b the third person. Usually, these are followed by the vowel e. The vowel a is used to designate someone who is loved (lhe- is prefixed to describe someone who is despised). The suffix -zh is used to mark a plural pronoun for numbers up to four, and -n for numbers beyond that. Therefore, lazh means "we, several beloved", and lheben means "they, many despised".