# Rio Nunez languages

The Rio Nunez (Rio Nuñez) or Nunez River languages constitute a pair of Niger–Congo languages, Mbulungish and Baga Mboteni. They are spoken at the mouth of the Nunez River in Guinea, West Africa.
The Rio Nunez languages have been studied by Fields (2001), but otherwise remain sparsely documented.

## Classification

The two Rio Nunez languages do not subgroup with the Nalu language, contrary to prior classifications. Previously, Fields had proposed a Coastal group consisting of Mbulungish, Mboteni, and Nalu that she considered to be distinct from the surrounding Mel languages. The grouping in its current scope was proposed by Güldemann (2018).
The Rio Nunez languages are currently unclassified within Niger-Congo, and whether or not they are part of the Atlantic languages is also uncertain.

## History

Speakers of Rio Nunez languages had cultivated African rice (Oryza glaberrima) for thousands of years on the swampy coast of Guinea. Mel speakers were later arrivals on the Guinean coast, as the Proto-Mel homeland is located in the north-central highlands of Sierra Leone just to the south of the Lesser Scarcies River, rather than on the coast (Fields 2008:83).
Today, both languages are endangered. As of 1998, fewer than 100 people spoke Baga Mboteni fluently, while Mbulungish had fewer than 500 speakers, although both speech communities had a few thousand people. The language endangerment is caused by a shift to Susu, a Mande language that is the lingua franca of coastal Guinea (Fields 2008:33–35).

## Vocabulary
### Basic

Comparison of basic vocabulary words of the Rio Nunez languages, and also Nalu, by Fields (2004):
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | eat | name |
| Mbulungish | ʃɛt | nop | pɛn | tet / ʃi-tet | lim | tul | yel | mboi | ti, ki-ti | tɔ | romba | yin |
| Mboteni | tʃir / si-kir | nʊf | ndo, ndoŋdo | tʊl / sʊ-rʊl | lom | sul | yɛla | loŋ / sa-loŋ | tili, li | sɔ | lamal | yin |
| Nalu | n-cɛt | n-nɛw | ɲin | m-fef / a-fef | n-lem, rim | n-sol | ɲ-yaak / a-yaak | n-hol | n-ti / a-ti | ngɔl / a-gɔl, ŋol | rɛp tahan | riiɸ |
Comparison of basic vocabulary words of the Rio Nunez languages, and also Nalu, by Wilson (2007):
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | name; surname |
| Baga Fore / Mbulungish | cet | ɔ-nɔp | pen | ki-tet | lem | tul | bɔl | | | | |
| Baga Mboteni | cír / si- | nǎf / sä-; ɛ-nop | ndɔŋ / -lo | tǎl / sǎ-r | ɛ-ləm / a- | sùl / su- | yelã, yɛl-əŋ | lə̀ŋ / sa- | lí / ti- | sɔ̀, a-sɔ | |
| Nalu | n-cɛt / a- | nɛw / a- | nin / a- | n-feθ / a- | rim / a- | n-sul | naak | wol | n-ti / a- | a-ŋɔl | riiθ / a- |
Vocabulary shared with Atlantic languages:
| English | Mbulungish | Mboteni | Nalu |
| four | nɛŋ | na | bi-nan |
| head | kap | kap | n-ki |
| ear | nop | nʌf | n-nɛw |
| eye | syɛt / syi-syɛt | eir / si-kir | n-cɛt / a-cɛt |
| mouth | tul | sul | n-sol / a-sol |
| tongue | lim | lɤm | n-lem |
| breast / milk | m-bin | mban | m-bem |
| hand / arm | tɛ | | n-tɛ |
| leg | luŋ | | tɛŋk |
| bone | mbol / tyʌ-mbol | | nhol / a-hol |
| moon / month | bel | pʌl | m-bilaŋ |
| tree | ti | li | n-ti |
| dog | but | wur | maa-bet |
| egg | in | | n-yin |
Innovated vocabulary differing from Atlantic languages:
| English | Mbulungish | Mboteni | Nalu |
| man | mɛ-sil | o-kw-cel / ngwɛ-cɛl | nlam-cel |
| dirty / black | bali | a-val | m-balax |
| long | lani | | m-lanna |
| cold | hon | | m-hon |
| to come | batɛ | | m-ba |
| to kill | ka-rame | lama | m-rama |
| to bite | nyɛt | nyera | m-ŋateŋ |
| to sit | ŋo | ŋon | m-ɲɔh |
| to die | ŋu-rip | | n-ref |
Some Mbulungish and Mboteni innovated words that differ from Nalu and other surrounding languages (Fields 2008:74):
| English | Mbulungish | Mboteni |
| mosquito | ɔ-bo / ɔ-bolleŋ | a-bɔ |
| crab (generic) | i-nep, e-nep, ɛnippel / ɛ-nippel | a-nep / a-neppel |
| type of crab | i-laŋ / ayel-laŋ | a-laŋ / alaŋŋel |

### Cultural

A rich set of rice agriculture-related vocabulary in Rio Nunez languages has been documented by Edda L. Fields-Black (2008).
| Meaning | Mbulungish | Mboteni | Nalu | Sitem |
| salt | mbes | ɔ-mbɛl | | mer (< Proto-Atlantic *-mer) |
| oil palm | yiis | | m-siis / a-siis | |
| seasonal stream | bɔlɔŋ / cubɔlɔŋ; para / cipparaŋ; ipal / appalleŋ | pɔl | m-tɛsɛ / a-tɛsɛ | |
| small seasonal stream | masaleŋ | ilex / alexeŋ | | |
| tree used to fabricate the short fulcrum shovel and the shovel handle | ki-mal | | m-silaa / a-silaa | |
| red mangrove (Rhizophora racemosa) used to fabricate the short or long fulcrum shovel | ki-kiɲc / ɛ-kiɲcil; ku-wɔl / a-wɔlleŋ | e-ma, ɛ-ma / a-ma | m-mak / a-mak | a-kinc / kinc |
| rice cultivated in the red mangroves | malɔ bɛ kinycilpon / cimmalɔŋ bɛ kiɲcilpon | for ɛma | | |
| white mangroves (Avicennia africana) | yɔp / ki-yɔp | e-wɛleŋ, weleŋ / awelleŋ | m-yɔɔf / a-yɔɔf | kopir / copir |
| rice cultivated in the white mangroves | malɔ biyɔppon / cimalɔ ciyɔppon | maafer | | |
| order given by the elder to begin fieldwork | | fɔfuduŋ | | kusɔkɔp |
| enough water in the mangrove field to begin fieldwork | | asofɔilawola | | dumun dɛncmɛ dukubora |
| order given by the elder to stop fieldwork | | senden afanc | | aŋkatefer |
| harvest ceremony (pre-Islam) | | xesara lemma | | kuwurɛ malɔ |
| order given to begin the harvest | | ndebe loŋŋon | | kitɛl kufɔlɔ |
| fulcrum shovel handle | kur capɔn / cukurkappon; ki-ti akɔp / ɛ-ti akɔp | ndii kɔp | m-kuŋgbala / a-kuŋgbala | |
| small pieces of wood used to reinforce shovel foot when tying it to handle (could be bamboo or the stalk of the red mangrove) | wac / cuwacel | i-xare / aŋ-xare | m-ba iŋkifɔhlasen / a-ba iŋkifɔhlasen m-caanahsen / a-caanahsen | mɛ-kɪnc |
| shovel blade | a-fenc / e-fenccel | | ma-fanc / a-fanc | |
| sculpted blade of fulcrum shovel | kɔp nyetelpon | i-cel / aɲ-cel | | |
| to sharpen the fulcrum shovel blade | a-fenc gbat | inʊmi cel | m-namtah / a-namtah | |
| vine used to attach shovel foot to handle | ntel / ɛteelleŋ | aɲcel | m-nintamp / a-nintamp | dɛ-tɛmpa / s-tɛmpa |
| to clear the red mangroves to make the large dike | ɛ-cɛp | asaɓɛn wucer akuvɔr | | |
| to burn the rice hay before the rainy season | | muxalɔmppasinal | | kɪcɔs yikaya malɔ |
| to trace the grand dike | ki-bereŋ wurtɛ | wac nxɔfɔrn | | |
| to cut the earth with the shovel to make the dike | abereŋ yɛkɛt / cibereŋ yɛkɛt | ebaxacakca | | |
| to cut weeds and separate two ridges | | awul | m-sɔɔaŋ / a-sɔɔaŋ | kɪ-cɛs |
| to walk on the weeds to diminish their size | | i-camanasen | ma-daka / a-daka | kɪ-namp |
| to cut the weeds on the bottom before turning soil with the shovel | iŋcɛpel mɔlɔ inpenna; a-cappa | | ma-cɛsa / a-cɛsa | kɪ-cɛs yika |
| first turning of the weeds and soil with fulcrum shovel | bɔŋwaca; ki-cɛp / a-cappa; a-beret / ɛ-beret | afanc | m-kes / a-kes | |
| one shovelful of earth | | for | ma-bees / a-bees | damba / samba |
| to walk on weeds for a second time | | elɛrpɛrnanasɔxɔl | m-ŋakten / a-ŋakten | |
| to tuck weeds into the soil with hands or feet | walta | ayixil; ibaxanas (feet are used in the fields); ibaxayekel (hands are used in the nursery) | | kɪ-nas anɛk |
| second turning of the soil to cover the weeds with fulcrum shovel | bɔŋkubut; awupur | | m-wupur / a-wupur | |
| short fulcrum shovel | ki-taŋgbaŋ / ci-taŋgbaŋŋel | aŋ-kumbɛl; faa-aŋkumbɛl (for repairing the dikes and other small jobs in the field and around the village) | ma-kumbal / a-kumbal | |
| long fulcrum shovel (2 to 4 meters long) | kɔp kokilannɛ / ci-kɔppel kokilannɛ | ɛ-lar (for use when turning the earth for the first time) | m-kɔp lanna / a-kɔp lanna | |
| ancestral fulcrum shovel used without metal blade | | kɔp amaŋkre cel / su kɔpamaŋ i-cel | | |
| dike / mound | ki-bereŋ / ci-bereŋ | axɔɓɛrn / aŋxɔɓɛrn | ma-bɔŋɛn / a-bɔŋɛn | |
| ridge | ɛ-nɛk / ki-nɛk | e-nɛk / a-nɛk | ma-nɛk / a-nɛɛk | a-nɛk |
| furrow | ku-bont / a-bontol | e-won / a-won | m-sumuunt / a-sumuunt | |
| to sow in rows | a-sappa | suk mmao | ma-cɛɛp | kɪ-cɛp tɛcɪr |
| to sow in the fields | a-meŋker | mbuŋma asina | | |
| to sow by broadcasting | malɔ pɛn | mboo mmao | ma-yara | kɪ-glal ka malɔ |
| to sow directly in the field | | afur mmao | ma-yaara | |
| to sow directly, done tightly | | axɔfɛl | m-dafeet / a-dafeet | kɪ-fɪlfɪl; kɪ-gbɛɛ malɔ |
| to sow directly, done tightly and then to pull up some seedlings and leave some | malɔ seŋ | mɓɛlmmalon | | |
| to sow directly, done loosely | malɔ bɛ kabatɛŋŋɛ biliŋmpon | maasɛpna | m-yolyolen / a-yolyolen | |
| to sow on flat land | bɔkitefɛ | maaxɔfɔla | | |
| first rice nursery | | tabla mbuŋŋund kamao | | kɪsɪmɪ kɪɪnɪkicɔkɔ cɔkɔ |
| second rice nursery | | mbuŋna asenden | | kɪsɪmɪ kamɛrɛŋ |
| too much water beneath the rice nursery | | asoyokokinin mmao | | kiŋkankla dumun |
| normal cycle of the rice nursery | | fam mmao | | ocomas |
| to wash bottom of germinated rice seedlings before transplanting | | abɔxɔr mmao | | ki-yaak malɔ |
| to attach germinated rice seedlings | | ɛra mmao | | ku-kutus malɔ |
| to put the attached and germinated rice seedlings in water before transplanting | | ndepman asɔla | | aŋgbɛ midirɛ |
| to cover the seeds with banana leaves | malɔ gbopret / cimmallɔŋ gbepret | wofor mmao | | kukumpus malɔ |
| germinated seedlings | ɛ-tiebelaŋŋa ɛcɔlcen | axɔfɛl | m-kicɛɛpa / a-kicɛɛpa | malɔ mopoŋ |
| seedlings that did not germinate | malɔ tɔti / cim-mallɔŋtɔti; malɔ beabuwɔcɛ | maamaŋ kulum | | malɔ mɛlɛcɛ |
| to pull up weeds with the hands | ɔtulut | iŋkur awewen | | |
| to transplant | belaŋ ɔcɔlɛ; a-sappa | iwaaso | m–cɛɛpa | pa-cɛɛp; tøk yɔkɔ an luksɪrnɛ kɪ-bɔf mɔ |
| to weed after replanting | | iŋkur aɓaɓɛn | | kʊwas malɔ |
| to clean the canal to begin fieldwork | | wuxucer aso | | kɪfɪnc kibɔŋɛn |
| to open the canal | bamcaɔtɔ | imuaxurtuŋun | m-bannataŋ / a-bannataŋ | kɪ-ŋɛr |
| to evacuate the water when the rice is ripe | | ɛbɛlaso kamato | | malɔ mɔlɔl |
| to close the canal | wulci; ɔtɔcaŋ | caimuarumtuŋ | m-laŋŋaŋ / a-laŋŋaŋ | kɪ-ŋiri |
| end of the canal | bampɛtɔtipotɛ / cim-bammelpɛcitɔtipetɛ | alubana | | |
| canal used to evacuate water from field | bampetelɔtɔ / cim-bampetɔlɔtɔ | tuŋ / suruŋ | m-tisɔɔtɔ / a-tisɔɔtɔ; m-sumunt / a-sumunt | dɪk wurɛ du mun; dobo |
| principal drain | kubŋkum | tuŋ / suruŋ | | |
| secondary drain | mawuŋkummul | fatuŋ / fam suruŋ | | |
| to guard the rice field from predators during the hungry season | a-kecek mmel | | ma-lɛɛm kabafrɛ / a-lɛɛm kabafrɛ | kɪ-bum |
| temporary shelter in the rice field | agbɔŋk / agbɔŋkel | iŋgaɲcaŋ | ma-gbɔɔŋk kamtɔh / a-gbɔɔŋk kamtɔh | ʊ-bal dalɛ tetek |
| to move to the field until the harvest | | ncebel asina | | siŋkɔdalɛ dikidirɛ |
| harvest | malɔ ɛtɛl | mɓɛr | ma-bit / a-bit | kɪ-tɛl ka malɔ |
| to evacuate the harvested rice to the dike so that it will not get wet | | yokon mal awultɔŋ | | patel dikibɔŋɛn |
| small handful / pile of harvested rice | | ɛra mmao | | malɔ kɪcaka |
| large pile of rice arranged with the grains on the inside | | maasuŋ saŋ kappa | | amboc kur |
| to fan rice | kɔ-fuŋŋa | | m-fentah [loanword from English] | kɪ-foy |
| to fan rice with fanner | malɔ petel | afoi mmao | | kɪ-gbap malɔ |
| to fan rice with wind | malɔ fuŋŋa | wuluŋ mmao | | kɪ-foi malɔ |
| rice fanner | ki-rɛbɛ / ci-rɛbɛ | kɛbei | m–dɛhɛn | kɪ-rɛbɛ / cɪ-rɛbɛ |
| to mill rice | ka-tampa | icɛr | ma-maθ | |
| to mill rice for first time | malɔ tampa | yuŋkapt mmaun | | kɪ-sɛpɪr; kɪ koŋos |
| to mill rice for second time | malɔ bekɛbiritɛ | wuŋ ailim | | anxɔ diksɛpɪt |
| to mill daily rations of rice with feet | malɔ ɛcɛɛk ɛsupun | sux mmao | | |
| daily ration of rice | | maalɔw / maŋŋalɔ | | malɔ medi |
| area where rice is beaten | tɛtek kubɔrton | aɓoma | ma-tana | |
| to cover the rice after beating but before fanning it | | wupurmaayɔŋŋɔn | | pakis malɔ |
| to transport the rice to the granary | | suŋ maarun | | kɪsarɛ malɔ |
| rice granary for seeds | | | | tɛlɛ pasansi |
| to dry the parboiled rice | | fambɛn mmao aruful | | kɪ cɛɛs |
| to distribute cooked rice for consumption | | wal malɔn | | kiyeres yɛɛc |
| calabash in which rice was served | | isar mmao | | pɛpɛ |
| wooden bowl in which rice was served | | ifɛrl | | po-ros / si-ros |
| rice is spoiled, because it was prepared with too much fire and smoke | | mmambɛl fus | | yɛɛc yɛntɛɛ |
| weeds used to reinforce the big mound | kɛp / ci-kɛppel | seɲɲel won | m-hoof / a-hoof | |
| water moss | a-fuc / ku-fuccel | afuɲc | m-cufran / a-cufran | kɪ-foc kadumun |
| new field with no mounds or ridges | | avent | m-bitik / a-bitik | kɪ-pɪr |
| to make new ridges | abeta / abetelaŋ | | | |
| field on high ground whose soil is sandy | ɔtɔ yɛiboŋkorolɛ / ɔtɔllɔŋ yɛciboŋkoroŋ | aninannces | | |
| field lying fallow | cakara ɛnɛkicot; bɔŋ bɛ pepiyɛcilɛ / cimboŋŋel pepiyecilɛ | | m-woskamtɔh atilɛbah / a-woskamtɔh watilɛbah | |
| low-lying area | timbilɛ apol / citimbilɛŋŋel | iniyapɔŋ | m-cumbaaŋ / a-cumbaaŋ | |
| rice husk | | | m-kisɛɛŋŋa / a-kisɛɛŋŋa | ʊ-fɔnta / fɔtʊ |
| rice seed | agba agbaleŋ | axɔfɔl mmao | m-kofok ka maro / a-kofok ka maro | |
| threshed, unmilled rice | malɔ bipɛc / cimmalɔ ciabolɛ | maŋkul | m-maaro tabobor / a-maaro tabobor | malɔ mɔbomba |
| pounded rice | caaki / cicakileŋ | manduŋŋund | m-maaro ntɔɔn / a-maaro ntɔɔn | malɔ mɔsɔkɪr |
| rice straw | malɔ baba tampa | mamiŋ kɛlɛcɛr | m-maaro nsimaθ / a-maaro nsimaθ | malɔ mɔtɔ sɛpɪr |
| rice grain | caaki | maŋkul | m-maaro yaaŋka / a-maaro yaaŋka | malɔ mɛgbɪntɛ |
| rice broken during processing | mɛɲim / cimmɛɲim | aɲcakas | m-ɲin ka maaro / a-ɲin ka maaro | |
| parboiled rice | malɔ yiŋŋin / cimmalɔ yiŋŋin | aruful | m-maaro nton / a-maaro nton | malɔ mocuf / talɔ pocuf |
| cooked rice | ɔro | mandul | m-fɛɛf / a-fɛɛf | yɛc |
| rice broth made with rice flour | baxa | mbɔs ammasam; alafa | m–mɔni / a-mɔni | |
| rice broth made with rice | mɔni | mbɔs; asowasa | m-baha / a-baha | |
| to form grain | malɔ fuŋŋa | | m-yeenɲcaŋ | |
| head of the rice plant | kapa malɔ / ciŋkapel amalɔ "literally head of rice" | kap mmao / saŋka mmao | m-ki ka mba putna / a-ki ka aba putna | do-bomp da malɔ "literally head of rice plant" |
| early-maturing rice variety | | mabaxa | m-rɛfnaha / a-rɛfnaha | malɔ mɔkɔ mɔ nunkɛnɛ |
| cluster | | | m-tɔnsɔ / a-tɔnsɔ | kɪ-ncɔnc / ŋcɔnc |
| beginning of gestation | | awal siŋŋapaŋŋal | m-lafkam lah / alafkam lah | malɔ mɛlɛk cor |
| rice in gestation period | | maawul | | malɔ melɛ cor |
| rice forming the head | | maafutuŋ | | malɔ kuwurus |
| rice plants in the same field form heads at different times | | maalɔ mdafutuŋŋul | | kunɔmkul malɔ |
| approaching the rainy season | | ɛllɛ lɛpɛr | | mɔlɔfɛ |
| rainy season | tɛmeisa | kuiyoŋ | m-tɛm kamkaak a-tɛm kamkaak | tɛm ta kɪfe |
| cold season | wɔɔppipepi | sɔɔ | m-hɔɔh kamcacŋah / a-hɔɔh kamcacŋah | |
| beginning of the rainy season | tɔ-lɔfɛ | tablɛ eleɓɛr; elɛpɛr | ma-lɔɔfɛ / a-lɔɔfɛ | |
| beginning of fieldwork | kitaŋkɛmɛc | sux mmao; ku-sɔk mmao | | |
| end of the rainy season | kayɛmin / ci-kayɛmin | elɛlɛŋ | | |
| end of the rainy season, hungry season | | elɛlɛŋ; ɛlɛlaŋ | m-lank / a-lank | |
| hungry season | tcippelɛmpep wori | laŋ | ɲin sabɔk / ɲinnɛ sabɔk | |
| surveillance period | | yilaŋxɔc | | kɪmɔmɔn kɪbora |
| dry season | abanan / tɛmu abanan | | m-hɔɔh kamθabraan / a-hɔɔh kamθabraan | kɪ-tɪŋ |
Areal words borrowed from Mande languages such as Susu (Fields 2008:118, 150–151):
| English | Mbulungish | Mboteni | Nalu |
| rice | malɔ | mao | maro |
| fonio | m-pindi / apindi | pundɛ / cu-pundɛlɛŋ | pundu, pundo |
| short-handled hoe | keri/ci-keri | keri / si-keri | |
| mound | tukunyi | | m-tukuɲi / atukuɲi |
| fulcrum shovel (generic) | kɔp / ci-kɔppel | kɔp / su-kɔp | m-kɔp / a-kɔp |