OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1st Army Tank Brigade (United Kingdom)

The 1st Army Tank Brigade was a formation of the British Army during the Second World War. A Tank Brigade was intended to support the Infantry and was mostly equipped with slow moving Infantry tanks, unlike an Armoured Brigade, which was equipped with faster cruiser tanks and later its own motorised infantry. Initially using infantry nomenclature for its smaller units, company and section and having 175 light and infantry tanks, it later adopted cavalry nomenclature of squadron and troop and later in the War grew to 240 tanks. Its designation was changed on 14 April 1940 to 1st Tank Brigade.

## History

The 1st Army Tank Brigade took part in the Battle of France, serving as part of the British Expeditionary Force. It fought against the Germans in Belgium and Northern France, providing the armour for the counter-attack at the Battle of Arras and covered the Allied retreat to Dunkirk. It lost all of its equipment on the beaches following the evacuation.
The reformed 1st Army Tank Brigade was transferred to North Africa, equipped with Valentine infantry tanks. The brigade took part in Operation Crusader, as part of the XIII Corps. Attached to the 2nd South African Division, it took part in the conquest of Bardia (December 1941 – January 1942).
The 1st Tank Brigade was disbanded 21 November 1944.

## Order of battle

From
* 4th Royal Tank Regiment (September 1939 – December 1940)
* 7th Royal Tank Regiment (September 1939 – December 1940)
* 8th Royal Tank Regiment (September 1939 – September 1942) did not go to France
* 44th Royal Tank Regiment (December 1940 – May 1943)
* 49th Royal Tank Regiment (December 1940 – October 1944)
* 42nd Royal Tank Regiment (April 1941 – November 1944)
* 11th Royal Tank Regiment (October 1942 – October 1944)

## Battle honours

* Tobruk 1941
* Gazala
* Defence of Alamein Line
* El Alamein
# Bow shock (aerodynamics)

A bow shock, also called a detached shock or bowed normal shock, is a curved propagating disturbance wave characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous, change in pressure, temperature, and density. It occurs when a supersonic flow encounters a body, around which the necessary deviation angle of the flow is higher than the maximum achievable deviation angle for an attached oblique shock (see detachment criterion). Then, the oblique shock transforms in a curved detached shock wave. As bow shocks occur for high flow deflection angles, they are often seen forming around blunt bodies, because of the high deflection angle that the body impose to the flow around it.
The thermodynamic transformation across a bow shock is non-isentropic and the shock decreases the flow velocity from supersonic velocity upstream to subsonic velocity downstream.

## Applications

The bow shock significantly increases the drag in a vehicle traveling at a supersonic speed. This property was utilized in the design of the return capsules during space missions such as the Apollo program, which need a high amount of drag in order to slow down during atmospheric reentry.

## Shock relations

As in normal shock and oblique shock,
* The upstream static pressures is lower than the downstream static pressure.
* The upstream static density is lower than the downstream static density.
* The upstream static temperature is lower than the downstream static temperature.
* The upstream total pressure is greater than the downstream total pressure.
* The upstream total density is lower than the downstream total density.
* The upstream total temperature is equal to the downstream total temperature, as the shock wave is supposed isenthalpic.
For a curved shock, the shock angle varies and thus has variable strength across the entire shock front. The post-shock flow velocity and vorticity can therefore be computed via the Crocco's theorem, which is independent of any EOS (equation of state) assuming inviscid flow.
# Mocímboa da Praia offensive

The Mocímboa da Praia offensive was a six day long offensive in northern Mozambique by Islamic State's Central African Province (IS-CAP) to capture the town of 30,000. The offensive, part of the insurgency in Cabo Delgado, was a major success for IS-CAP, as they captured Mocímboa da Praia.

## Offensive

The offensive actions started on August 5, 2020 when IS-CAP insurgents attacked the villages of Anga, 1 de Maio, Awasse, and the outskirts of Mocímboa da Praia on the same night. On August 6, IS-CAP attacked two military bases in Mocímboa da Praia, killing or wounding 50 soldiers and seizing dozens of rifles and RPG-7s. The government also repeated an attempted assault on the city, killing 16 insurgents. On August 8, the government pulled out of Ntotue, a strategic town in between Mocímboa da Praia and Awasse. On August 9, IS-CAP took the town of Awasse and were in control of the outskirts of Mocímboa da Praia. A well-carried out ambush took place on Sunday just before Awasse, killing 55 recruits and injuring 90 more. By the 10th the city of Mocímboa da Praia was completely cut off from food and ammunition. South Africa's Dyck Advisory Group attempted to airdrop ammunition onto the city under siege but dropped it too far from the Mozambican military. As a result, the Mozambicans suffered casualties trying to recover the supplies. On Tuesday, August 11, the Mozambican army, outnumbered and low on ammunition, was forced to retreat by boat from the city. In the retreat, an HV32 interceptor vessel was hit with an RPG and sank. 55 soldiers were killed in running battles during the siege of the city. The insurgents lost a total of 70 men during the battle for the city.

## Aftermath

Following the offensive, IS-CAP declared Mocímboa da Praia its capital. Several local civilians welcomed the rebels, and were reportedly seen cheering them on. Despite attempts by the Mozambican security forces to retake the town, it remained under rebel control as of March 2021.
A combination of Rwandan and Mozambican forces launched an effort to retake the city at the beginning of August 2021. This offensive was ultimately successful.
As Mocímboa da Praia has traditionally served as a major hub for smuggling in narcotics and minerals, observers believe that the conquest has allowed IS-CAP to impose taxes which provide it with a steady revenue stream.
# Kaštaritu

Kaštaritu (Neo-Assyrian Akkadian: 𒁹𒁉𒋫𒊑𒌅, romanized: Kaštaritu; Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎰𐎼𐎡𐎫, romanized: Xšaθrita; fl. 670s BCE) was a Median chieftain. He is mentioned as "King of the Medes" in an inscription dated 678 BCE. His lands were presumably located along the northeastern border of Assyria. Amongst his possessions was the city of Kār-Kaššî. Kaštariti forged an alliance of the Medes with the Cimmerians, Mannaeans, and Scythians against Assyria.

## Identification

It has been suggested that Kaštaritu can be identified as Median king Phraortes. Some scholars, however, deny such a connection based on historical evidence and linguistic differences in the native Iranian names of the two rulers.

## Reign

Assyrian texts mention Kaštaritu's incursions into Assyria, then under leadership of Esarhaddon. Oracles were commonly sought by Assyrian rulers for such occasions, invoking the gods to assess the situation and guide them towards help. Esarhaddon was no stranger to such practice, frequently turning to these oracles for advice. Before decisions could be made by these oracles, animals would be sacrificed and omens would then be interpreted based on the positions of the carcasses. Decisions would then be made based on these omens. In this instance, Esarhaddon turned to a priest of the sun god, Shamash, for guidance. Tablets dating from the 7th-century BCE, mostly found in Nineveh, describe multiple "oracle requests" in relation to Kaštaritu in particular. Among the questions raised to Shamash during these oracle requests were whether Kaštaritu was a threat to the Assyrians, and whether he would conquer several Assyrian cities. Kaštaritu had asked another Median chieftain, Mamitiarshu, for assistance in attacking the Assyrian city of Kishsassu. One recorded oracle request purports that Esarhaddon feared the loss of the city to the Medians. Kaštaritu also planned a raid on the Assyrian town of Kilmân with the Mannaeans and Saparda.
It is clear that Kaštaritu's incursions were not a sole occurrence as Esarhaddon had constantly sought oracles to help deal with his bothersome campaign into Assyrian territories. One oracle request suggests that Kaštaritu attempted to make peace with the Assyrians. He sent a messenger to the Assyrian royal court, in the hopes of creating a treaty. Esarhaddon pleaded to Shamash, asking whether he should agree to the peace or interrogate the messenger and kill him. A subsequent oracle request suggests that peace was never achieved. Instead, the Assyrians possibly mounted a retaliation against Kaštaritu and his forces, with the intention of finally ending attacks from Kaštaritu. Kaštaritu's alliance was divided due to internal disagreements, and Kaštaritu's campaign in Assyria ended before 673 BCE. Some Scythian tribes continued attacks into Assyria. Other Scythian tribes, under the leadership of Bartatua, sought to marry Esarhaddon's daughter to create an alliance with Esarhaddon as a means to end the hostilities. Other Median tribes in Kaštaritu's alliance also settled peace with the Assyrians.
# Australian Injecting and Illicit Drug Users League

The Australian Injecting & Illicit Drug Users League (AIVL) is the peer-led peak organisation and harm reduction network advancing the wellbeing, health & human rights of the millions of people who use drugs illicitly (PWUD) in Australia and representing peer-based Drug User Organisations (DUOs) and also support the capacity building of peer-based harm reduction programs and networks in the Asia-Pacific region. AIVL is based in Sydney but fully decentralised, as of 2023, for a better diverse representation. AIVL host on its website: harm reduction, advocacy, research and drug policy resources, an online training platform for PWUD, harm reduction peer workers and healthcare allies, and the AIVL NSP Directory.
# Ben Hyne

Ben Hyne (born 7 March 1994) is an Australian rugby union footballer who currently plays as a lock or loose forward for the Brumbies in the international Super Rugby competition. Domestically, he turns out for Canberra Vikings in the National Rugby Championship.

## Early career

A Queenslander by birth, Hyne was raised in Rockhampton, but attended school at Downlands College in Toowoomba. His first exposure to senior rugby was with Brothers Old Boys in the Queensland Premier Rugby competition in 2012. During his time with Brothers, he combined rugby with work as a carpenter.
Hyne's breakthrough came in 2015 when he was selected for the Brisbane City side which competed in and won that year's National Rugby Championship. In total, he played in 9 of City's 11 games during the campaign and helped himself to 2 tries.
Hyne moved to Canberra for the 2016 season and made some great friends playing for the Tuggeranong Vikings. Second row stocks were at an all time high at the club at that time. Friendships and a healthy rivalry were key pillars of success in the Valley and Vikings were the envy of other clubs in the competition.

## Super Rugby career

Hyne's strong performances as a lock for Brisbane City did not go unnoticed and he was invited to Brumbies pre-season training ahead of the 2016 Super Rugby season. There he impressed head-coach Stephen Larkham who signed him on a development contract. Hyne made his debut as a number eight in a match against the Reds, however it didn't prove to be a happy beginning to his Super Rugby career with an injury forcing him to leave the field after only 5 minutes. He was ruled out for the remainder of the season, but he had done enough to be signed to the Brumbies Extended Playing Squad for the 2017 season.

## Super Rugby statistics

    As of 14 August 2016
| Season | Team | Games | Starts | Sub | Mins | Tries | Cons | Pens | Drops | Points | Yel | Red |
| 2016 | Brumbies | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2017 | Brumbies | 4 | 1 | 3 | 94 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Total | Total | 5 | 2 | 3 | 99 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
# List of sovereign states by research and development spending

This is a list of countries by research and development (R&D) spending in real terms, based on data published by World Bank, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
According to World Bank, ″Gross domestic expenditures on research and development (R&D) include both capital and current expenditures in the four main sectors: Business enterprise, Government, Higher education and Private non-profit. R&D covers basic research, applied research, and experimental development.″
According to United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, ″Research and development (R&D) expenditure as a proportion of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is defined as the total intramural expenditure on research and experimental development (R&D) performed in the national territory during a specific reference period expressed as a percentage of national gross domestic product (GDP).″
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ″Gross domestic spending on R&D is defined as the total expenditure (current and capital) on R&D carried out by all resident companies, research institutes, university and government laboratories, etc., in a country. It includes R&D funded from abroad, but excludes domestic funds for R&D performed outside the domestic economy.″
As of 2022, Israel leads the world in R&D spending as a percentage of GDP, followed by South Korea, the United States, Japan, Belgium and Sweden.

## List

The following table provides information on R&D spending, based on data published by World Bank, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The indicator is measured in USD constant prices using 2015 base year and purchasing power parities (PPPs) by OECD and as percentage of GDP.
# 2020 Russian wildfires

In June 2020, despite being within the Arctic Circle, Verkhoyansk hit a temperature of 100.4 °F (38.0 °C). In Russia's two easternmost districts, 18,591 distinct fires have consumed 14 million hectares (35 million acres).
   Fires are releasing record levels of carbon dioxide, partly because they are burning ancient peatlands that have been a carbon sink. A study published last month shows that northern peatlands could eventually shift from being a net sink for carbon to a net source of carbon, further accelerating climate change. The unprecedented Arctic wildfires of 2019 and 2020 show that transformational shifts are already under way, says Thomas Smith, an environmental geographer at the London School of Economics and Political Science. "Alarming is the right term."
In September 2020 scientists warned that an "international effort is needed to manage a changing fire regime in the vulnerable Arctic", reporting that satellite data shows how the Arctic fire regime is changing. On 3 September EU institutions reported that, according to satellite data, the Arctic fires already far surpassed the total of CO$_2$ emissions for the 2019 season.
# Attack on Abu Bakr Mosque of Baku

The Attack on Abu Bakr Mosque of Baku took place on August 17, 2008, when a grenade was thrown through a window of the Abu Bakr (Abu-Bekir) mosque in central Baku, Azerbaijan, during the evening prayer. Three people were killed and eleven more were injured. The Azerbaijani security forces accused the Russia-based Islamist Jihadist group, the Derbent Jamaat for the attack and launched the Operation Eagle.

## Background

According to the annual Country Report on Terrorism in 2008 of the US Department of State, "Azerbaijan is a logical route for extremists with ties to terrorist organizations".
According to Reuters, the mosque is used both by Sunni and Wahhabi Muslims. And while Azerbaijan has launched several investigations into Wahhabism in the last few months, law enforcement agencies determined that Wahhabists convicted of an attempted terrorist act in the town of Sumgait had links to al-Qaeda. Whilst the activities of Wahabbists in Azerbaijan are considered controversial, the government has declared Wahabbi groups would not be banned.
The U.S. and Israeli embassies in Azerbaijan expressed concern about the incident.

## Investigation

A special committee was created to handle the investigation. The mosque remained closed during the investigation.
The Ministry of National Security of Azerbaijan accused the Russia-based Derbent Jamaat leaders Ilgar Mollachiyev from Zagatala, and Samir Mehdiyev (Suleiman) and a group of others of organizing the attack on Abu Bakr Mosque in Baku. In 2007, 17 members of the group were arrested in Sumgayit. As the Ministry reported, "According to their plan, a Sumgayit Jamaat (a secret extremist group) had to be created. They planned a number of robberies in Baku in order to collect funds for a holy war (Jihad)." The attack was followed by the Operation Eagle, launched by the Azerbaijani security services.
# Glen Croe

Glen Croe (Scottish Gaelic: Gleann a' Chrò) is a glen in the heart of the Arrochar Alps in Argyll and Bute, Scotland. The glen is surrounded by large and rugged mountains characterised by huge boulders. The Croe Water flows through the glen and into Loch Long.

## Geography

Glen Croe is located to the north west of Loch Lomond and Loch Long, draining into the latter. At the head of the glen is the pass leading to Glen Kinglas. The A83 road runs the length of the glen, passing the viewpoint at Rest & Be Thankful, at the west of the Glen. Glen Croe is situated entirely within the Argyll Forest Park in Cowal. The glen is also within the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.
The mountains on either side are:
* Beinn Ìme (munro) at 1,011 metres (3,317 ft)
* Ben Donich (corbett) at 847 metres (2,779 ft)
* Beinn Luibhean (corbett) at 857 metres (2,812 ft)
* The Brack (corbett) at 787 metres (2,582 ft)
* Beinn an Lochain (corbett) at 703 metres (2,306 ft)
* The Cobbler (corbett) at 870 metres (2,850 ft)

## Landslides

The glen was formed by glacial erosion and has repercussions today, as many areas are still unstable.
The A83 is prone to landslides, including the section within Glen Croe. The A83 is a main road to the west coast of Scotland. On 8 October 2023, ten people were airlifted off the road by helicopter, as they were trapped by seven separate landslides along a short section of the road.
When the A83 is closed, traffic is diverted onto the single track military road that runs in the bottom of the glen, till the steep incline at the head of the glen called Rest & be Thankful.

## History

The old road through the glen seen in the photograph (very top of article) is part of the military road that ran from Dumbarton to Inveraray. The old road was built in the 1740s under the supervision of Major William Caulfeild. A stone inscribed Rest & Be Thankful was erected around 1749, after this section of road was completed. The rest and be thankful refers to a steep incline on the old military road, that precedes, entering the pass through too Glen Kinglas.

## Rest and Be Thankful Speed Hill Climb

From 1906 until 1970, motor racing events, including hill climbs and rally stages took place here.

## Song

Gilleasbaig Mac an t-Saoir composed a song called 'Oran Ghlinne Chro', detailing the sadness he felt when the gamekeeper moved his flock out of the glen to make room for deer and sport hunting. Written in 1914.
# George Foreman vs. José Roman

George Foreman vs. José Roman was a professional boxing match contested on September 1, 1973, for the undisputed heavyweight championship.

## Background

In his previous fight, George Foreman had dominated Joe Frazier, knocking the champion down six times in less than two rounds to become the new undisputed heavyweight champion on January 22, 1973. For his first defense, it was announced that Foreman would travel to Tokyo to take on little-known Puerto Rican challenger Jose "King" Roman. Prior to landing his title match against Foreman, Roman had little success at that point, fighting mostly unknown journeyman, losing seven times and was not viewed as a legit threat to take Foreman's titles. Roman would nevertheless make history as the fourth Hispanic and first Puerto Rican fighter to challenge for a major heavyweight title. The fight was also the first heavyweight title bout to take place in Japan and would remain the only one until Mike Tyson successfully defended his undisputed heavyweight title in the Tokyo Dome against Tony Tubbs in 1988.

## The fight

Foreman would make quick work of Roman, ending the fight after just two minutes and making it one of the shortest heavyweight title fights in history. A little over a minute into the fight, Foreman had Roman up against the ropes and landed several powerful punches that put Roman down. Roman was able to get back up and continue on, but Foreman quickly resumed his attack and caught Roman flush with a right hook that sent Roman crashing to the mat. Roman again answered the referee's count, but Foreman would quickly hit Roman with a right uppercut that put Roman down for the count. Foreman was named the winner by knockout at 2:00 of the first round.

## Aftermath

Foreman would next face Ken Norton in Caracas, Venezuela.

## Undercard

Confirmed bouts:
* Ricardo Arredondo (Mexico) KO6 Morito Kashiwaba (Japan)
(Retains World Boxing Council world Junior Lightweight title)
* Terry Hinke (United States) KO Richard Pittman (United States) Heavyweights
* Takatsune Shimisu (Japan) WD Harbar Watanabe (Japan)
* Kazuo Aikawa (Japan) WD Shikara Igarashi (Japan)
* Hisami Numatya (Japan) WD Hiroshi ishibashi (Japan)

## Broadcasting

| Country | Broadcaster |
| Mexico | Televisa |
| Philippines | KBS 9 |
| United Kingdom | BBC |
# Les Fairbairn

Thomas Carlyle Leslie Fairbairn (25 April 1889 – 20 April 1964) was an Australian rules footballer who played with Geelong in the Victorian Football League (VFL).