# Arbëresh language

Arbëresh (gluha/gjuha/gjufa Arbëreshe; also known as Arbërisht) are the Albanian linguistic varieties spoken by the Arbëreshë people of Italy, brought there by several migratory waves of Albanians from Albania and Greece since the Late Middle Ages. Arbëresh varieties are derived from the old Tosk Albanian varieties spoken in the south-western Balkans, and throughout the centuries they have developed in Italy in contact with the neighboring Italo-Romance speaking communities. Other Tosk Albanian varieties from the Late Middle Ages referred to as Arvanitika (endonym: arbërisht) are spoken in Greece by the Arvanites. E Mbësuame e Krështerë (1592) by Luca Matranga from Piana degli Albanesi is the earliest known Old Tosk text, a translation of a catechism book from Latin.
The Arbëreshë people are bilingual, also speaking Italian. Arbëresh is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. While Italian law protects the language and culture of the Albanian people in Italy, the language taught at school and university is Standard Albanian, constituting an issue for the Arbëresh communities' preservation of their native idiom, wich has remained separated from the main Albanian-speaking compact area for around 500 years. Alongside the fact that Arbëresh is rarely written, another issue for the language attrition is the differentiation between the Albanian varieties used in Italy: the Arbëresh local idioms in some areas are so different from each other that Arbëresh people of those areas use Italian or Standard Albanian as lingua franca to communicate with each other.

## History

Between the 11th and 14th centuries, Albanian-speaking mercenaries from the areas of medieval Albania, Epirus and Morea now Peloponesse, were often recruited by the Franks, Aragonese, Italians and Byzantines.
The invasion of the Balkans by the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century caused large waves of emigration from the Balkans to southern Italy. In 1448, the King of Naples, Alfonso V of Aragon, asked the Albanian noble Skanderbeg to transfer to his service ethnic Albanian mercenaries. Led by Demetrio Reres and his two sons, these men and their families were settled in twelve villages in the Catanzaro area of Calabria. The following year, some of their relatives and other Albanians were settled in four villages in Sicily. In 1459 Ferdinand I of Naples also requested assistance from Skanderbeg. After victories in two battles, a second contingent of Albanians was rewarded with land east of Taranto, in Apulia, where they founded 15 villages. After the death of Skanderbeg (1468), resistance to the Ottomans in Albania came to an end. Subsequently, many Albanians fled to neighbouring countries and some settled in villages in Calabria.
There was a constant flow of ethnic Albanians into Italy into the 16th century, and other Albanian villages were formed on Italian soil. The new immigrants often took up work as mercenaries with Italian armies. For instance, between 1500 and 1534, Albanians from central Greece were employed as mercenaries by Venice, to evacuate its colonies in the Peloponnese, as the Turks invaded. Afterwards these troops reinforced defences in southern Italy against the threat of Turkish invasion. They established self-contained communities, which enabled their distinct language and culture to flourish. Arbëreshë, as they became known, were often soldiers for the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Venice, between the 16th and 19th centuries.
Despite an Arbëreshë cultural and artistic revival in the 19th century, emigration from southern Italy significantly reduced the population. In particular, migration to the Americas between 1900 and 1940 caused the total depopulation of approximately half of the Arbëreshë villages. The speech community forms part of the highly heterogenous linguistic landscape of Italy, with 12 recognised linguistic minorities Italian state law (law 482/1999). The exact Arbëresh speech population is uncertain, as the Italian national census does not collect data on minority language speakers. This is also further complicated by the Italian state's protection of the Albanian culture and population as a whole and not Arbëresh Albanian specifically. This law theoretically implements specific measures in various fields such as education, communication, radio, press and TV public service, but in the case of the Arberesh community the legal construction of the language as "Albanian" and the community as the "Albanian population" effectively homogenises the language and has not led to adequate provision for the linguistic needs of the communities.

## Classification

Balkanic
Armenian
Graeco-Albanian
Graeco-Phrygian
Greek
Phrygian (extinct)
Illyric
Messapic (extinct)
Albanian :
The Palaeo-Balkanic Indo-European branch based on the chapters "Albanian" (Hyllested & Joseph 2022) and "Armenian" (Olsen & Thorsø 2022) in Olander (ed.) The Indo-European Language Family :
Arbëresh varieties derive from varieties of Old Tosk Albanian, which were spoken in southern Albania and Greece. They have experienced a similar evolutionary pattern to Arvanitika, the Albanian linguistic varieties spoken in Greece. Arbëresh varieties are spoken in Southern Italy in the regions of Abruzzi, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise, Apulia and Sicily. The varieties of Arbëresh are closely related to each other but are not always entirely mutually intelligible.
Arbëresh retains many features of medieval Albanian from the time before the Ottoman invasion of Albania in the 15th century. Arbëresh varieties also retain some Greek elements, including vocabulary and pronunciation, most of which they share with Arvanitika varieties. Many of the conservative features of Arbëresh were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arbëresh gluhë /ˈɡluxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/). Arbëresh most resembles the varieties of Albanian spoken in the southern region of Albania, notably Lab Albanian, as well as Cham Albanian.
Arbëresh was commonly called Albanese ('Albanian' in the Italian language) in Italy until the 1990s. Until the 1980s Arbëresh was mostly a spoken language, except for its written form used in the Italo-Albanian Byzantine Church, and Arbëreshë people had no practical connection with the Standard Albanian language – which was unified as a mainly Gheg-based standard from 1908 to 1969, and as a mainly Tosk-based standard from 1969 – as they did not use the standard Albanian form of writing.
Since the 1980s, some efforts have been organized to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of the language.
Arbëresh has been replaced by local Romance languages and by Italian in several villages, and in others is experiencing contact-induced language shift. Many scholars have produced language learning materials for communities, including those by Giuseppe Schirò Di Maggio, Gaetano Gerbino, Matteo Mandalà, Zef Chiaramonte.
The Arbëresh local idioms in some areas are so different from each other that Arbëresh people of those areas use Italian or Standard Albanian as lingua franca to communicate with each other.

### Language or dialect

Arbëresh language beside medieval mainland Tosk Albanian is also descended from Arvanitika which evolved separately from other forms of Albanian since the 13th century when its first speakers emigrated to Morea from Southern Albania and Epirus. A dialect is defined linguistically as closely related and, despite their differences, by mutual intelligibility. In the absence of rigorous linguistic intelligibility tests, the claim cannot be made whether one is a dialect or a separate variant of the same language group.

## Varieties

The varieties of Arbëresh largely correspond with the regions where they are spoken, while some settlements have distinctive features that result in greater or lesser degrees of mutual intelligibility.
The Siculo-Arbëresh variety is spoken exclusively in the Province of Palermo and in three villages: Piana degli Albanesi, Santa Cristina Gela and Contessa Entellina; while the varieties of Piana and Santa Cristina Gela are similar enough to be entirely mutually intelligible, the variety of Contessa Entellina is not entirely intelligible. Therefore a further dialect within Siculo-Arbëresh known as the Palermitan-Arbëresh variety can be identified, as well as a Cosenza variety, a Basilicata variety, and a Campania variety represented by the speech of one single settlement of Greci. There is also a Molisan-Arbëresh and an Apulio-Arbëresh.
Within the Cosenza Calabrian varieties of Arbëresh, the dialect of Vaccarizzo Albanese is particularly distinct. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese in Calabria by approximately 3,000 people, Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of both Gheg and Tosk dialects.

## Phonology

Some features of Arbëresh distinguish it considerably from standard Albanian while also maintaining features still used in other Tosk Albanian dialects. In some cases these are retentions of older pronunciations.

### Vowels
#### Ë

The letter ⟨Ë⟩ is pronounced as either a mid central vowel [ə] or as a close back unrounded vowel [ɯ]. So the word Arbëresh is pronounced either [ɑɾbəˈɾɛʃ] or [ɑɾbɯˈɾɛʃ] depending on the dialect.

#### Y to I

Arbëresh lacks the close front rounded vowel [y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel [i]. For example ty ('you') becomes tihj, and hyni ('enter') becomes hini.

### Consonants

GJ, Q
The letters ⟨GJ⟩ and ⟨Q⟩ are pronounced as a palatalized voiced velar plosive [ɡʲ] and a palatalized voiceless velar plosive [kʲ], rather than a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] and a voiceless palatal plosive [c] as in standard Albanian. E.g. the word gjith ('all') is pronounced [ɡʲiθ] rather than [ɟiθ], qiell ('heaven') is pronounced [kʲiɛx] rather than [ciɛɫ], and shqip ('Albanian') is pronounced [ʃkʲɪp].
GL, KL
In some words, Arbëresh has preserved the consonant clusters /ɡl/ and /kl/. In Standard Albanian these have mostly become the palatal stops gj and q, e.g. glet not gjet ('s/he looks like ... '), klumësht not qumësht ('milk'), and klisha instead of kisha ('church').
H, HJ
The letter ⟨H⟩ is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x]. As such, the Albanian word ha ('eat') is pronounced [xɑ], not [hɑ]. Arbëresh additionally has the palatalized counterpart, [ç]. Therefore, the word hjedh ('throw') is pronounced [çɛθ]. The letter combination ⟨HJ⟩ is present in a few standard Albanian words (without a voiceless velar fricative), but is not treated as a separate letter of the alphabet as it is in Arbëresh.
LL, G, GH
The letters ⟨LL⟩ and ⟨G⟩ are realised as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ]. The vast majority of these words originate in Sicilian, but the sound also occurs in words of Albanian origin. Often ⟨G⟩ when pronounced [ɣ] is replaced by ⟨GH⟩ in the Arbëresh orthography, with ⟨G⟩ in theory reserved for /ɡ/ (although in practice it is inconsistent). This feature is very strong that it is carried over into the Italian speech of inhabitants of Piana degli Albanesi and Santa Cristina Gela in words such as grazie, frigorifero, gallera, magro, gamba etc. which are realised respectively as [ʁratsiɛ], [friɣoˈrifero], [ɣaˈlɛra], [ˈmaɣro], [ˈʁamba] etc. In Piana degli Albanesi the tendency is to treat Italian loanwords differently from Sicilian, which results in the difference between llampjun, pronounced as [ʁampˈjun] (from lampione, 'lamp post'), and lampadhin, pronounced as [lampaˈðin] (from Italian lampadina). In the first example, the ⟨L⟩ becomes ⟨LL⟩ [ʁ] because it comes from Sicilian, whereas in the process of transference from the Italian lampadina to Arbëresh lampadhin, the ⟨l⟩ does not change but the ⟨d⟩ becomes [ð].
Words of Albanian Origin :
| Written | Pronounced | English |
| gëzim | [ʁzim] | joy |
| grish | [ʁriʃ] | invite |
| llah | [ɣaχ] | eat until stuffed |
| pagëzim | [paʁˈzim] | baptism |
Words of Sicilian Origin :
| Written | Pronounced |
| fughurë | [fuɣurə] |
| fugatjar | [fuɣatˈjar] |
| garazh | [ɣarˈaʒ] |
| ghurg | [ɣurɣ] |
| ghust | [ɣust] |
| ghuant | [ɣwant] |
| maghare | [maɣaˈri] |

### Final devoicing of consonants

Arbëresh has retained an archaic system of final devoicing of consonants in contrast with Standard Albanian. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are the voiced stops b, d, g, gj; the voiced affricates x, xh; and the voiced fricatives dh, ll, v, z, zh.
| Original voiced | b [b] | d [d] | g/gh [ɡ]/[ɣ] | gj [ɡʲ] | x [dz] | xh [dʒ] | dh [ð] | ll [ɣ] | v [v] | z [z] | zh [ʒ] |
| Devoiced | p [p] | t [t] | k [k] | q [kʲ] | c [ts] | ch [tʃ] | th [θ] | h [x] | f [f] | s [s] | sh [ʃ] |
Examples:
* b > p: thelb ('clove') - [θɛlp]
* d > t: Vent ('place') - [vɛnt]
* dh > th: zgledh ('read') - [sklɛθ]
* g > k: lig ('bad') - [lɪk]
* gj > q: zogj ('chicks') - [zɔkʲ]
* j > hj: vaj ('oil') - [vaç]
* ll > h: uthull ('vinegar') - [ʊθʊχ]
* x > c: ndanx ('near') - [ndant͡s]
* z > s: loz ('dance') - [lɔs]
* zh > sh: gozhda ('pin') - [ɣɔʃda]

### Stress

Stress in Arbëresh is usually on the penultimate syllable, as in Italian.

## Morphology

In Arbëresh, just like in Tosk, the first person present indicative (e.g. "I work") is marked by the word ending in NJ, whereas in standard Albanian this is normally marked by J.
So, 'I live' is rrónj in Arbëresh and rroj in standard Albanian. The present continuous or gerund differs from Standard Albanian; Arbëresh uses the form "jam'e bënj" instead of "po bej" (I am doing).

## Non-Albanian derived elements
### Vocabulary

The adoption of words of ancient Greek origin or of the Koine comes above all from their use in Byzantine religious practices, when the corresponding use in Albanian declined, the "courtly" one of the church was used. The Arberesh use ancient Greek in their liturgies. Thus synonyms are created, such as parkales or lutje for the word "prayer".
Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Koine Greek influence. Examples:
* amáhj [aˈmaç] ('war') < μάχη [ˈmaçi] ('battle').
* haristís [xaɾiˈstis] ('thank') < ευχαριστώ [e̞fˌxariˈsto̞] ('thank you'). Arvanitika uses fharistisem.
* hora [xɔˈɾə] ('village') < χώρα [chóra] ('land, village')
* parkalés [paɾkaˈlɛs] ('I plead', 'please') from παρακαλώ [paˌrakaˈlo̞] ('please').
* hiravol (sheaf, a bundle of harvested crop), < χειρόβολο (χειρ = hand).
Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Albanian Arvanitika which has influenced the current Greek areas since the Middle Ages. Examples:
* dhomat (bundle, pack), < Gr. δεμάτιον.
* argomē (fallow, plowing), < όργωμα. Today surviving in the toponym Argomazit of Piana dei Albanesi.
* kalogreshza (little woman monk), < καλόγρια = woman monk.
* gjitonia (neighbourhood), < γειτονία.
* dhaskal (teacher), < δάσκαλος.
On the Koine Greek elements in the Italo-Albanian dialects see T. Jochalas (1975).

## Archaic Latin-Sicilianisms

In the Arbëresh varieties of Sicily and Calabria there are loanwords from the Sicilian language that have crystallized into the Arberesh language matrix at some time in the past but have now mostly disappeared, or evolved in the Romance vocabulary of the local population. This also occurs in other Arberesh varieties outside of Sicily with the local Romance varieties of their communities.
Examples:
* ghranet ('money') < Sic. granna, meaning 'grains'. It is still used in some contexts by modern Sicilian speakers, but in all situations in Arbëresh. Another Arbëresh word for 'money' is haromë, but is no longer used.
* qaca ('square') < Sic. chiazza; used in all Arbëresh dialects as well as Sicilian. The Albanian word sheshi which means 'square' in standard Albanian means 'plateau' in Arbëresh.
* rritrenjet ('toilets') < Norman French via Sic. retained in Arbëresh, but no longer in use in modern Sicilian.
* rritrat ('photograph') < Sic. 'picture' (ritrattu), more common in Arbëresh than in modern Sicilian.
* zdar (to go to the countryside) < Sic. sdari; no longer commonly used in Sicilian.
* zgarrar (to make a mistake; to err) < Sic. sgarrari (now carries a different meaning in Sicilian).

### Incorporation

Alongside the Sicilian vocabulary element in Siculo-Arbëresh, the language also includes grammatical rules for the incorporation of Sicilian-derived verbs in Arbëresh, which differs from the rules concerning Albanian lexical material.
Examples:
* pincar ('think'), originally mendonj – mbanj mend but also mëndinj; derived from the Sicilian 'pinzari'. Which conjugates in the present tense as follows:
* U pincar = I think
* Ti pincar = You think
* Ai/Ajo pincar = He/She thinks
* Na pincarjëm = We think
* Ju pincarni = You (pl) think
* Ata/Ato pincarjën = They think
In the past tense this conjugates as follows:
* U pincarta = I thought
* Ti pincarte = You thought
* Ai/Ajo pincarti = He/She thought
* Na pincartëm = We thought
* Ju pincartët = You (pl.) thought
* Ata/Ato pincartën = They thought

## Contractions

| M’e tha mua | He told it to me (feminine object) |
| Ngë m’i tha mua | He did not tell it to me (masculine object) |
| T’e thom | I tell you it (feminine object) |
| T’i thom | I tell you it (masculine object) |

## Diminutives and augmentatives

The Arbëresh diminutive and augmentative system is calqued from Sicilian and takes the form of /-ats(-ɛ)/ = Sic. -azz(u/a); for example "kalac" (cavallone/big horse), and the diminutive takes the form of /-tʃ-ɛl(-ɛ)/ from Sic. /-c-edd(u/a); for example "vajziçele" (raggazzina/little girl). The Arbëresh word for "swear word" is "fjalac" and comes from a fusion of the Arbëresh word of Albanian etymology: "fjalë" plus the Sicilian augmentative /-azz[a]/ minus the feminine gendered ending /-a/; this calques the Sicilian word 'palurazza' which is cognate with Italian 'parolaccia'.

## Comparison with other forms of Albanian

There are many instances in which Arberisht differs greatly from Standard Albanian, for instance:
| Arbërisht | Shqip (Standard Albanian) | Meaning |
| Falem (Falemi if more than one person) | Përshëndetje / Tungjatjeta | Hello |
| Mirë se na jerdhët / Mirë se vini | Mirë se erdhët | Welcome |
| Mirëmenat | Mirëmëngjes | Good morning (morning, until noon) |
| Vjen’ më rarë or vjen më thënë | do të thotë or do me thënë | It means |
| Bëjëm të shkonj (Piana degli Albanesi) | më le të kaloj | Let me pass |
| Shkòmë musturën | më jep piperin | Pass me the pepper |
| Zotërote ë një "zot"? | Zotëri, jeni prift? | Sir, are you a priest? |
| E ghrish zotërisë satë për një pasjatë | ju ftoj për një shëtitje | I invite you for a stroll |
| Zglith/djovasë mirë | lexo mirë | Read well |
| qëroi isht burinë i lik | moti është shumë i keq | The weather is very bad |
| U rri Sëndahstinë | jetoj në Shën Kristinë | I live in Santa Cristina |
| Ka bëjëm të ngrënit | do ta gatuajmë ushqimin | We will prepare the food |
| U ka jecur njera qacës | unë kam ecur tek sheshi | I have walked to the square |
| Ghajdhuri isht ndë horë/katund | gomari është në katund/fshat | The donkey is into the village |
| Jam e vete ngulem/flë | unë do të shtrihem/fle | I'm going to sleep |
| lip ndjesë se zgarrarta/gabova shumë | më fal se gabova shumë | I'm sorry that I've made so many errors |
| Ajo isht jime shoqe | ajo është gruaja ime/Im shoqe | She is my wife |
| Flit t'arbrisht | fol shqip | Speak Albanian |
| Jim shoq isht e ngulet | burri im/Im'shoq është duke fjetur | My husband is sleeping |
| Më përqen rritëratin tënd | më pëlqen fotografia jote | I like our photograph |
| Mortatë or motrëmëmë | hallë or tezë | Aunt |
| Lalë or vovi | xhaxha or Lalë (dialect) | Uncle or Older brother |
| Lalbukri | burri i hallës | Uncle uncle in law (father's sister's husband) |
| Vova | motra e madhe | Older sister |
| Tata | babai or at/tata (dialect) | Father |
| Mëmë | nënë or mama | Mother |
| Mëdhè | edhe/ende | Also |
| ghua | vëlla | brother |
| Ndrëngova | Kuptova | I understood |
| Sprasmja | Fund | end |
| Jot'ëm sempri të thëshjë të mos haje nga tajuri çë ngë ka' klënë pastruar! | Jot'ëmë përherë/gjithmonë të thoshte të mos haje nga pjata që nuk është pastruar! | Your mother always said don't eat from plates that haven't been cleaned! |
| Kemi besë se ai ngë i ftes | besojmë se ai nuk ka faj | We believe he is not at fault |
| Áti jinë | çë je | në | qiell, | shejtëruar kloft | embri | jít. |
| Ati ynë | që je | në | qiell, | u shënjtëroftë | emri | yt. |
| Ati ynë | që je | në | qiell, | shejtnue kjoftë | emni | yt. |
| Our father who art in heaven | Our father who art in heaven | Our father who art in heaven | Our father who art in heaven | hallowed be thy name | hallowed be thy name | hallowed be thy name |
| arthët | rregjëria | jóte; | u bëftë | vullimi | jít, |
| arthtë | mbretëria | jote; | u bëftë | dëshira | jote, |
| ardhtë | mbretnia | jote; | u baftë | vullnesa | jote, |
| thy kingdom come | thy kingdom come | thy kingdom come | thy will be done | thy will be done | thy will be done |
| si ndë | qiell, | ashtú | në | dhé; |
| si në | qiell, | edhe | mbi | dhe. |
| si në | qiell | ashtu | në | dhe. |
| on earth as it is in heaven |||||
| bukën | tënë | të përditshme | ëna | neve | sòt; |
| bukën | tonë | të përditëshme | jepna | neve | sot; |
| bukën | tonë | të përditshme | epna | ne | sot; |
| give us this day our daily bread ||||||
| ndëjena | dëtyrët | tóna, |
| edhe | falna | fajet | tona, |
| e ndiejna ne fajet e mëkatet | e ndiejna ne fajet e mëkatet | tona, |
| and forgive us our trespasses |||
| ashtù si | na | ja | ndëjejëm | dëtyruamëvet | tanë; |
| sikundër | edhe | ne | ua | falim | fajtorëvet | tanë; |
| si i ndiejmë na | si i ndiejmë na | si i ndiejmë na | si i ndiejmë na | fajtorët | tanë; |
| as we forgive those who trespass against us ||||||
| e | mos | na | le | të | biem | në | ngarje, | pó | lirona | nga |
| edhe | mos | na | shtjerë | në | ngasje, | po | shpëtona | nga | i | ligu; |
| e | mos | na | len me ra | në | keq, | por | largona | prej gjith së keq; | prej gjith së keq; | prej gjith së keq; |
| and lead us not into temptation | and lead us not into temptation | and lead us not into temptation | and lead us not into temptation | and lead us not into temptation | and lead us not into temptation | but deliver us from evil | but deliver us from evil | but deliver us from evil | but deliver us from evil | but deliver us from evil |
* Ashtu kloft.
* Ashtu qoft.
* Amin.

## Grammar comparison

There are many elements of Arberesh grammar that differ considerably from Albanian, for example:
| Arbërisht | Shqip | Meaning | Notes |
| ka shkosh | do të kalosh | You will pass | Arbërisht uses the common Balkan participle ka, whereas Shqip uses do which translates as 'want', which is also a feature of the Balkan sprachsbund |
| flini alluras/anangasij | folni/flisni shpejt | Speak fast (pl.) | |
| flëni | flini | Sleep! (pl.) | |
| bëjëm të shkonj | më lër të kaloj | Let me pass | Shqip uses 'allow me to pass' whereas Arbërisht uses 'we do to pass' and 'able to pass'. |
| vajta | Vajta/shkova | I went | Arbërisht conjugates from the Tosk word të vete whereas shkova means 'I passed' in Arbërisht |
| ke gjegjur | ke dëgjuar | You have heard | |
| Zoti/prifti zën fill parkalesin/lutjen | Prifti fillon lutjen | The priest starts the prayer | |
| Stis | Ndërtoj | I build | |
| Jo, nëng/ngë e kam parë | Jo, nuk e kam parë | No, I haven't seen it | |
| jam e flas, je flet, ai isht e flet, ajo isht e flet, jem'e flasjëm, jan'e flasjën, jan'e flini | po flas, ti po flet, ai po flet, ajo po flet, po flasim, po flasin, po flisni | I am talking, you are talking, he is talking, she is talking, we are talking, they are talking, you (pl) are talking | The present continuous is marked with the structure 'I am, You are, He is, She is, We are, They are etc. Whereas Shqip uses po which literally means 'yes' |
| ki’ të zgjoneshjëm | duhet të ishim zgjuar | We should have got up | |
| Ku ë/isht/osht Mëria? | Ku është Maria? | Where is Maria? | The locative marker te which literally means 'to' is added before ku 'where'. (A similar phenomenon occurs in Welsh English and West Country English i.e. 'Where to you going?' or 'Where's he to?') |
| Mërìa rri alartë | Maria jeton lartë | Maria lives upstairs | |
| Si ë Zotërote? | Si jeni ju, Zotëri? | How are you sir? | The polite or formal is marked by use of Zotërote with ju being reserved for the plural only |

## Name

The name Arbërishte is derived from the ethnonym "Albanoi", which in turn comes from the toponym "Arbëria" (Greek: Άρβανα), which in the Middle Ages referred to a region in what is today Albania (Babiniotis 1998). Its native equivalents (Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) used to be the self-designation of Albanians in general. Both "Arbëria" and "Albania/Albanian" go further back to name forms attested since antiquity.
Within the Arbëresh community the language is often referred to as "Tarbrisht" or "Gjegje". The origin of the term "gjegje" is uncertain, however this does mean "listen" in Arbërisht. Gheg is also the name of one of the two major dialects of Albanian as spoken in the Balkans. According to the writer Arshi Pipa, the term Gegë was initially used for confessional denotation, being used in pre-Ottoman Albania by its Orthodox population when referring to their Catholic neighbors.

## Arbëresh names

Every Italo-Albanian person is given a legal Italian name and also a name in Albanian Arbërisht. Quite often the Arbëresh name is merely a translation of the Italian name. Arbëresh surnames are also used amongst villagers but do not carry any legal weight; the Arbëresh surname is called an "ofiqe" in Arbërisht. Some Arbëresh 'ofiqe' are 'Butijuni', 'Pafundi', 'Skarpari' (shoemaker from Italian word 'scarpa').
Examples of Italian names and their Arbëresh equivalents:
| Italian | Arbëresh |
| Giuseppe | Zef, Josif |
| Marco | Marku |
| Luca | Lekë, Lekini/u |
| Francesco | Frangjishk, Nxhiku, Çiku |
| Nicola | Kola, Koll, Nikoll |
| Angelica | Ëngjëlliqe |
| Gabriele | Gavril, Bjelli |
| Alessandro | Lishëndër-i |
| Elena, Elenuccia | Lena, Lenuca |
| Giacomo | Minu, Minikeli, Jakini |
| Mario, Mariuccio | Marjani, Marjucë |
| Emanuele, Manuele | Manuel-i |
| Maria | Mëria |
| Martino | Martini, Tinuçë |
| Gaetano | Tani |
| Eleuterio | Lëfteri |
| Antonio | Ndon, Nton, Gjon |
| Gaspare | Ghaspani |
| Domenica | Mima |
| Lorenzo | Lloreu |
| Giovanni | Jani, Xhuan, Vanù |
| Demetrio | Dhimitër-i |
| Spiridione | Spiridhon, Dhoni, Spiro |
| Rosalia, Rosario | Sallja, Saridu |
| Tommaso, Tommasino | Masinë |
| Cosimo | Gësmëni |
| Saverio | Shaverë |
| Andrea | Ndrica |

## Writing system

The language is not usually written outside of the church and a few highly educated families, but officials are now using the standard Albanian alphabet, which is used on street signs in villages as well as being taught in schools.

## Language samples
### Pronouns

Personal pronouns :
| | | singular | singular | plural | plural |
| 1st person | 1st person | u | I | na | we |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | ti | you | ju | you |
| 3rd person | MASC. | aji | he | ata | they (m.) |
| 3rd person | FEM. | ajo | she | ato | they (f.) |
Possessive pronouns :
| | | singular | singular | plural | plural |
| 1st person | 1st person | jim | mine | jynë | ours |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | jytë | yours | juaj | yours |
| 3rd person | MASC. | i/e tíj | his | atyre | theirs |
| 3rd person | FEM. | i/e saj | hers | atyre | theirs |

### Verbs

Personal moods :
| Mood | Tense | Number and person | Number and person | Number and person | Number and person | Number and person | Number and person | English equivalent (only 1SG) |
| Mood | Tense | Singular | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural | Plural | | English equivalent (only 1SG) |
| Mood | Tense | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | English equivalent (only 1SG) |
| Indicative | Pluperfect | kisha burë | kishe burë | kishë burë | kishëm burë | kishni burë | kishin burë | I had done |
| Indicative | Imperfect | ish'e buja (she buja) | ish'e buje (she buje) | ish'e bun (she bun) | ishm'e bujëm | ishn'e buni | ishn'e bujën | I was doing |
| Indicative | Perfect | bura | bure | burë | burëm | burën | burën | I did |
| Indicative | Present perfect | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | I have done |
| Indicative | Present | bunj | bun | bun | bujëm | buni | bujën | I do, I am doing |
| Indicative | Future | ka bunj | ka bush | ka buje | ka bujëm | ka buni | ka bujën | I will do |
| Imperative | Present | — | buje! | — | — | buni! | — | do! (2nd person only) |
Verbals :
| | Form | English |
| Infinitive | të bunj | to do |
| Gerund | jam e bunj | doing |
| | The verb HAVE | The verb HAVE | The verb HAVE | The verb HAVE | The verb BE | The verb BE | The verb BE | The verb BE |
| | PRES | IMPERF | SUBJ.IMPERF | SUBJ.PERF | PRES | IMPERF | SUBJ.IMPERF | SUBJ.PERF |
| 1SG | kam | keshë | të kem | të keshë | jam | jeshë | të jem | të jeshë |
| 2SG | ke | keshe | të kesh | të keshe | je | jeshe | të jesh | të jëshe |
| 3SG | ka | kish | të ket | të kish | ishtë, është | ish | të jet | të ish |
| 1PL | kemi | keshëm | të kemi | te keshëm | jemi | jeshëm | të jeshëm | të jeshëm |
| 2PL | kini | keshëtë | të kini | te keshëtë | jini | jeshëtë | të jeshëtë | të jeshëtë |
| 3PL | kanë | kishnë | të kenë | të kishnë | janë | ishnë | të jenë | të ishnë |

### Some common phrases

| Arberesh | English |
| Falem | Hello. |
| Çë bun? Si rri? | What are you doing? How are you? |
| Jam shum mirë | I am very well |
| Të haristis, je mirë? | Thank you, and are you well? |
| O, jam edhe u mirë. | Yes, I'm fine too. |
| Flet arbreshin? | Do you speak Arbërisht? |
| Ka vjen? | Where are you from? |
| Jam arbëresh | I'm Italo-Albanian |
| Mëma isht ka Srigari | My mother is from San Cosmo Albanese |
| Ju parkales | Please |
| Gëzonem të të njoh | Pleased to meet you |
| Mirëdita | Good morning |
| Shihemi | See you soon |
| Gjegjemi njize | We'll speak soon |
| Si të thon? | What's your name? |
| Mua më thonë Marieja | My name is Maria |
| Ëj/ò | Yes (Piana degli Albanesi) |
| Arà/ëj | Yes (Santa Cristina Gela) |
| Ora/ëj | Yes (Contessa Entellina) |
| Jo | No |

### Prepositions

| Arbëresh | English |
| te | to |
| nga/ka | from |
| prapa | behind |
| te ana e | beside, next to |
| mbatanë | on the other side |
| kundër | against |
| me | with |
| 'e (F), i (M), të (N & PL) | of |
| brënda | within, inside |
| jashtë | outside |
| sipër | on, above |
| njera | until |
| për | for |
| nën | under |
| mjes/midis/ndër | between, among |

### Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns replace nouns once they are able to be understood from their context.
| Arbëresh | English |
| ai/ajo | that (m/f) |
| ata/ato | those (m/f) |
| ki/kjo | this (m/f) |
| rta/rto | these |
| mosgjë/farëgjë | none |

### Sample text

Shërbesa e Kurorës - The Arbëresh Marriage Ceremony :
| Zoti : Gjergji, do ti të marsh për gruja Linën çë ë ke këtú te ana, si urdhuron Klisha Shejte, e të qëndrosh lidhur me atë në të mirën si edhé në të ligën gjithë ditët e gjellës tënde? | Priest: Do you George want to take as your wife Lina who is present here according to the instructions of the Holy Church and to be faithful through the good and the bad all of your life? |
| Dhëndërri: O, e dua! | Groom: Yes, I want! |
| Zoti: Bekuar kloft Perëndia jínë nga herë, naní e për gjithëmonë e për jetë të jetëvet. | Priest: blessed be our God for all time, now and always in the centuries of centuries. |
| Populli: Amín. | People: Amen. |
| Zoti: Në paqe parkalesjëm t'ën Zonë. | Priest: In peace we pray to the Lord. |
| Populli: Lipisí, o i Madh'yn'Zot. | People: Our Great God, we beseech you. |
| Bekimi të unazavet |
| Zoti: Me këtë unazë shërbëtori i Perëndis, Gjergji, lidhet me shërbëtorën e Perëndis, Lina, në embër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit Shejt. | Priest: The servant of God, George, is tied to the servant of God, Lina, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. |
| Zoti jep krinjët e këndon Msalmin 127: Të limë atá çë i trëmben t'ynë Zoti e çë jecjën te udhët e Tij. | the priest delivers the candles and intones Psalm 127 Make happy those who fear the Lord and may they walk in His ways. |
| Lëvdi tij, o i madh'yn'Zot, lëvdi tij. Dhóksa si, o Theós imón, dhóksa si | Glory to you, our God, glory to you. |
| Se ti ka hashë bukën e shërbëtyrës s'duarvet tote. Lumë ti e fatbardhë ka jeshë. Jotë shoqe ka jet si dhri me pemë te muret e shpis tënde. Bijët tatë si degë ullinjësh rrethë triesës tënde. Shi kështú ka jet bekuar njeriu çë ka trëmbësirën e Perëndisë. | That you will eat the bread of the work of your hands. You will be happy and enjoy all that is good. See your wife as a fertile vine in the intimacy of your home. That your daughters will be like olive branches around your table. That those who fear the Lord will be blessed. |

## Footnotes

* ↑ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Italy : Albanians". Refworld. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
* ↑ Matranga & Milano 2019, p. 228: "1. Arbëresh is the name used to indicate the linguistic varieties spoken by descendants of groups of Albanian immigrants in southern Italy from the middle of the fifteenth century. The Albanian varieties are divided into Gheghe varieties, spoken (by the Shqiptarë) in the northern part of the albanophone territory, in Kosovo and in Macedonia, and Tosche varieties, spoken in the southern part of Albania (by the Shqiptarë), in some areas of Greece (by the Arvaniti) and in Southern Italy (by the Arbëreshë)."
* ↑ Matranga 2018, p. 14: È ormai ampiamente condivisa l’opinione che le varietà italo-albanesi appartengano al ceppo dialettale tosco, ossia a quelle varietà diffuse nell’Albania meridionale e nella Grecia (quest’ultime note col nome di arvanit), mentre in quella settentrionale e nel Kosovo sono presenti parlate del ceppo ghego. p. 73: "Più opportunamente, esse proverrebbero da diverse contrade balcaniche dell’Impero bizantino, in parte già sotto dominio turco-ottomano, corrispondenti a regioni della attuale Albania e della Grecia, sia insulare che peninsulare."
* 1 2 3 4 "Albanians in Italy". Minority Rights Group International.
* 1 2 "Legge 15 Dicembre 1999, n. 482, Art. 2, comma 1". Camera.it. Archived from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
* 1 2 Jenny Frost, The Arbëreshë: Italy’s Albanian Diaspora, The Cambridge Language Collective: "Arbëresh (or Arbërisht) is the language spoken by the Arbëreshë community in Italy, descending from a medieval Tosk variety and containing influences from Italian. However, the language is now considered endangered; there are estimated to be fewer than 80,000 remaining native speakers worldwide. This can be put down to multiple factors: while some schools and universities in Rome and Southern Italy do teach the Albanian language, the version taught is standard Albanian rather than Arbëresh. Additionally, young people are often reluctant to use Arbëresh, preferring to use Standard Italian or Italo-Romance dialects, and because forms of Arbëresh can differ between communities, standard Albanian can sometimes be used as a lingua franca."
* 1 2 3 Derhemi, Eda (2003). "New Albanian immigrants in the old Albanian diaspora: Piana degli Albanesi". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 29 (6): 1015–1032. doi:10.1080/1369183032000171348.
* 1 2 3 Nasse, George Nicholas (1964). The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. ISBN 9780598204004.
* ↑ Liakopoulos 2022, p. 307:The Albanians, also known as Arvanites in the Greek lands, were first mentioned in the Peloponnese in the second half of the fourteenth century. By 1391 there had been an influx of Albanians that could be hired as mercenaries. The Venetians were in need of colonists and soldiers in their depopulated areas and hence offered plots of arable land, pastures and tax exemptions to the wandering Albanians in southern Greece (Thiriet 1959: 366; Chrysostomides 1995: 206, 291, 337, 339; Topping 1980: 261–71; Ducellier 1968: 47–64). A well-attested-to, more populous Albanian settlement took place during the rule of Theodore I Palaeologus (1384–1407), when ten thousand Albanians appeared before the Isthmus and asked Theodore for permission to settle in the Peloponnese (1394-95). A second wave of immigrants from southern Albania and western mainland Greece descended on the Peloponnese, perhaps in 1417-17. Their establishment was significant for the invigoration of the Albanian demographiy in the peninsula that led to the Albanian rebellion in 1453
* ↑ Derhemi, Eda. "The role of grassroots' media and community leaders for the small endangered languages: The case of Arbëresh of Piana degli Albanesi".
* ↑ Derhemi, Eda. Language endangerment and maintenance in the Arbresh of Piana degli Albanesi. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2003.
* ↑ Di Maggio, Martin Hasan. "Arbëresh: language mixing, translanguaging and possible solutions to maintenance problems."
* ↑ Mandala', M., & Mandala' M (2005). Siculo-arbëresh e siciliano a contatto: alcune verifiche. In Der Einfluss des Italienischen auf die Grammatik der Minderheitensprachen. Morphologische und syntaktische Probleme (pagg. 13-21)
* ↑ A. Guzzetta, La Parlata di Piana degli Albanesi, Parte I - Fonologia, Palermo 1978
* 1 2 Vito Matranga (January 1995). Ipotesi per il rilevamento dei dati variazionali nei punti albanofoni dell'Atlante linguistico della Sicilia (Report).
* ↑ Jochalas Titos, "Sulla problematica dei prestiti Bizantini e Neo-Greci nei dialetti Italo-Albanesi", Balkan Studies 16, 1, 1975, p. 49.
* ↑ Arshi Pipa (1989). The Politics of Language in Socialist Albania. East European Monographs. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88033-168-5. Retrieved 15 July 2013. ...was a confessional name in pre-Ottoman Albania.