# J. Howard Moore

John Howard Moore (December 4, 1862 – June 17, 1916) was an American zoologist, philosopher, educator, and social reformer. He was best known for his advocacy of ethical vegetarianism and his pioneering role in the animal rights movement, both deeply influenced by his ethical interpretation of Darwin's theory of evolution. Moore's most influential work, The Universal Kinship (1906), introduced a sentiocentric philosophy he called the doctrine of Universal Kinship, arguing that the ethical treatment of animals, rooted in the Golden Rule, is essential for human ethical evolution, urging humans to extend their moral considerations to all sentient beings, based on their shared physical and mental evolutionary kinship.
A prominent figure during the Progressive Era, Moore was also heavily involved in the American humanitarian movement. He was a prolific writer, producing numerous articles, books, essays, and pamphlets on topics such as animal rights, ethics, evolutionary biology, humane education, humanitarianism, socialism, temperance, utilitarianism, and vegetarianism. In addition, he lectured extensively on these topics and was widely acclaimed for his oratory skills, earning the nickname the "silver tongue of Kansas" for his speeches on prohibition.
Born near Rockville, Indiana, Moore spent his early years in Linden, Missouri. Raised in a Christian household, he was raised to believe that animals existed entirely for human use. However, during his college years, Moore encountered Darwin's theory of evolution, which led him to reconsider his views, ultimately rejecting both Christianity and anthropocentrism and adopting vegetarianism. While studying zoology at the University of Chicago, he became a socialist, co-founded the university's Vegetarian Eating Club, and won a national oratorical contest on prohibition. Moore became an active member of the Chicago Vegetarian Society, modeled after the Humanitarian League, a British organization he also supported. In 1895, he delivered a speech titled "Why I Am a Vegetarian", which was later published by the Chicago Vegetarian Society. Moore spent the remainder of his life working as a teacher in Chicago while continuing to lecture and write.
In 1899, Moore published his first book, Better-World Philosophy, in which he addressed what he viewed as fundamental problems in the world and outlined his ideal vision for the universe. In The Universal Kinship (1906), Moore introduced his doctrine of Universal Kinship, which he later expanded upon in The New Ethics (1907). In response to an Illinois law requiring the teaching of morals in public schools, he produced educational materials, including two books and a pamphlet. He also authored two works on evolution: The Law of Biogenesis (1914) and Savage Survivals (1916). After battling chronic illness and depression for several years, Moore died by suicide at the age of 53 in Jackson Park, Chicago.

## Biography
### Early life and education

John Howard Moore was born on December 4, 1862, near Rockville, Indiana. He was the eldest of the six children of William A. Moore and Mary Moore (née Barger).$^{:224}$ He had three brothers and two sisters. When Moore was six months old, his family moved to Linden, Missouri. Over the next 30 years, the family moved between Kansas, Missouri and Iowa.
Moore had a Christian upbringing, which instilled in him the belief that humans were created by God to have dominion over the Earth and its inhabitants. Growing up on a farm, Moore enjoyed hunting, a pastime shared by those around him. He later reflected that he and his community viewed animals as existing for whatever purposes they deemed appropriate.$^{:224}$
Moore studied at High Bank school in Linden until the age of 17, then attended a college in Rock Port, Missouri, for one year. He subsequently studied at Oskaloosa College in Iowa from 1880 to 1884,$^{:224}$ but did not graduate.$^{:117}$ Moore continued his education at Drake University. His study of science introduced him to Darwin's theory of evolution, leading him to reject Christianity in favor of an ethic based on Darwin's theory, which recognized the intrinsic value of animals independent of their value to humans.$^{:224}$ Additionally, Moore studied law under C. H. Hawkins in Cawker City, Kansas.

### Early career

In 1884, Moore was appointed as an examiner for the Board of Teachers in Mitchell County, Kansas. In 1886, he ran for a seat in the United States House of Representatives but finished last out of five candidates. During this period, he adopted vegetarianism for ethical reasons.$^{:224}$
In 1889, Moore was employed by the National Lecture Bureau, earning the nickname "silver tongue of Kansas" for his eloquent speeches. He was also described as a "youthful Luther" and was celebrated for both his oratory and singing voice. In the summer of 1890, he studied voice culture in singing and speaking at the Chautauqua Institution in Chautauqua, New York. From 1890 to 1893, Moore delivered lectures in Kansas, Missouri, and Iowa.$^{:224}$ He also gave lectures on behalf of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union.
   I came to the conclusion out there on the Kansas prairies that the animals were not treated right by human beings. I thought we had not even a right to kill them for food and came to the University of Chicago to study the matter. At that time I had never heard of vegetarianism.
In 1890, Moore published his first pamphlet, A Race of Somnambulists, criticizing what he saw as humanity's barbaric treatment of animals for food, sport, and fashion. He described Thanksgiving as a day of gluttony and merciless killing, unparalleled in cruelty. Despite this, Moore expressed hope for a future where people recognize the malevolence of these customs and treat animals kindly. He envisioned a societal and moral evolution that extended the same sympathy and fraternity that ended slavery and is now advancing women's rights to the humane treatment of animals.$^{:224}$
During this period, he lived on a farm south of Cawker City and worked as a reporter for The Beloit Daily Call, submitting rural correspondence about local events.

### University of Chicago studies and activities

In 1894, Moore started at the University of Chicago with advanced academic standing. He graduated in April 1896,$^{:117}$ earning an A.B. degree in zoology. While studying there, he became a socialist and served as vice president of the university's Prohibition Club.$^{:224}$ He also co-founded its Vegetarian Eating Club, serving as president in 1895 and the following year as purveyor.$^{:224}$
In 1895, he won first honors in the prohibitions club's annual oratory contest with his speech "The Scourge of the Republic". That April, he represented the university at the state prohibition contest in Wheaton, Illinois, where he also secured first place.$^{:225}$ He continued his success by winning first honors at the national contest in Cleveland. A newspaper profile described Moore as a passionate supporter of women's suffrage, noting his curly hair and soulful eyes.$^{:225}$

### Influence on the Chicago Vegetarian Society

Moore was an influential member of the Chicago Vegetarian Society and the Humanitarian League, a British radical advocacy group. He modeled the Society as an American version of the League.
In 1895, Moore addressed the Society with a speech later published as Why I Am a Vegetarian and serialized in the Chicago Vegetarian, the Society's journal, in 1897. He argued for universal solidarity among sentient beings, explaining his refusal to eat meat as, "I never want happiness that gives another pain". Acknowledging the challenge of changing minds in a single lecture, he described the horror he felt towards the "barbarous, blood-sucking practices" of meat consumption, linking it to broader exploitation where some beings' interests are sacrificed for others' convenience. He urged ethical treatment for all beings and adoption of universal courtesy and love.$^{:225}$
Favorable reviews appeared in The Phrenological Journal of Science and Health in 1899 and 1900. Laurence Gronlund, a Danish-born American lawyer, lecturer, and political activist, wrote a pamphlet in response titled Why I Am Not a Vegetarian: Why He is Wrong. In reply to Gronlund's critique, Moore asserted that for a carnivore, "every meal is a murder" and argued that explaining why one is "not a vegetarian" is essentially an attempt to justify being a predatory animal.
In 1898, Moore was given a full-page column in the Society's journal, the Chicago Vegetarian, greatly expanding his influence. This platform allowed him to share his ideas regularly, significantly shaping the society's message and growth.$^{:119}$

### Teaching career

After graduating from the University of Chicago in 1896, Moore accepted the chair of sociology at Wisconsin State University, lecturing on the topic of social progress, before continuing to teach at the university.
In 1898, Moore started teaching ethics and zoology at Crane Technical High School, a position he retained for the remainder of his life.$^{:225}$ He also taught at other schools in Chicago, including Calumet High School and Hyde Park High School. In 1908, Moore taught courses on elementary zoology, physiographic ecology and the evolution of domestic animals at the University of Chicago for three quarters.
In 1909, a law was passed in Illinois prescribing teaching of morals in public schools for 30 minutes each week. Contrary to his fellow teachers, Moore was pleased by the law and began preparing supporting educational materials.$^{:228–229}$
In February 1912, a meeting of the Schoolmasters' Club of Chicago, of which Moore was a member, was disrupted because they did not agree with his views; Moore responded: "I am a radical and a socialist, but I do not allow my radicalism nor my socialism to enter into my teachings."
Moore opposed the Chicago Board of Education's move to stop teaching sex hygiene, between 1913 and 1914. He wrote a letter to the board in favor of teaching the topic.$^{:229}$ In January 1914, Moore gave a speech on the topic in Chicago, at Hull House. The Board later dropped the change.$^{:229}$

### Writing career
#### Better-World Philosophy

In 1899, Moore published his first book, Better-World Philosophy: A Sociological Synthesis, which explores the interconnectedness of all living beings and the ethical implications of sentience. The book argues for a shift away from anthropocentrism, proposing that natural selection could eventually lead to a more cooperative and altruistic society. Moore asserts that sentience is a fundamental requirement for ethical consideration, extending this argument to non-human animals, who, by virtue of their capacity for sentience, deserve moral regard. He also addresses the topic of eugenics, a widely debated issue at the time, advocating against indiscriminate procreation and for controlled breeding. Furthermore, the book emphasizes the importance of teaching altruism from childhood, promoting a balance between self-love and love for others.$^{:225}$
The book received mixed reviews, with critics highlighting Moore's strong and passionate writing style.$^{:225}$ It was highly praised by Lester Frank Ward, who commended its profound and independent thought, while David Starr Jordan lauded its bright style and bold conclusions, recommending it as essential reading for students of social progress.

#### Fermented Beverages

In 1900, Moore published Fermented Beverages: Their Effects on Mankind, a detailed exploration of the impact of fermented beverages, particularly alcoholic drinks, on human physiology and society. The book examines the physiological and psychological effects of alcohol, discussing both potential benefits and harms. It challenges the assumption that moderate alcohol consumption necessarily leads to negative outcomes, arguing that responsible use may have minimal or even positive effects on health. Moore also critiques prohibitionist approaches, suggesting that a more balanced perspective on alcohol regulation is necessary. The work considers the broader social and cultural contexts in which alcohol is consumed, advocating for policies that reflect scientific evidence rather than extreme measures like total prohibition.

#### The Universal Kinship

Moore published The Universal Kinship in 1906.$^{:226}$ In the book, he explored the ethical implications of Darwinism, investigating the physical, psychical and ethical relationship between humans and other animals, and demonstrating that humans and animals are mental and physical cousins.$^{:386}$ Moore drew extensively on the works of evolutionary scientists, including Darwin, Huxley, Haeckel, Romanes, and Lubbock.
Based on this relationship, Moore advocated for a profound change in how humans perceive and interact with animals.$^{:226}$ He emphasized that ethical treatment of animals was not just a moral duty but a crucial aspect of human ethical evolution and argued that true progress in human civilization could only be achieved when humans extended their ethical considerations to all sentient beings, embodying the Golden Rule.$^{:223–224}$
The book received several favourable reviews.$^{:226}$ It was endorsed by notable figures, including Mark Twain, Jack London,$^{:387}$ Eugene V. Debs, Mona Caird, Richard F. Outcault, and Ella Wheeler Willcox. It also received favorable mentions in British publications, including The Humanitarian, Reynold's Newspaper, and the Manchester News.

#### The New Ethics

In 1907, Moore published, to acclaim, The New Ethics, in which he explored the expansion of ethics based on the biological implications of Darwin's theory of evolution. Moore accepted the challenge of changing anthropocentric perceptions, arguing that while such views have developed over the course of generations, both individuals and societies are in a state of constant growth and evolution. He expressed confidence that humans would evolve past their current stage of selfishness.$^{:227}$

#### Teaching resources on ethics

In 1912, Moore published Ethics and Education, as an aid for teachers who were having trouble implementing the new Illinois educational requirements to teach morals. It discusses the necessity of teaching ethics in schools, addressing the physical, vocational, intellectual, and ethical anxieties involved in such education and advocates for an evolution in moral development that extends ethics to all sentient beings, encouraging teachers to instil values like compassion, imagination, and altruism, in order to foster a higher moral character in humanity.$^{:228}$
Before the book's publication, Moore generated controversy when he made available extracts which were critical of the courts and marriage. In an interview, Moore defended the content of the book, inviting the Board of Education to investigate him if necessary.$^{:228}$
In the same year, he published High-School Ethics: Book One, which was intended to form the first part of a four-year high school course covering theoretical and practical ethics and covered a variety of topics including the ethics of school life; properly caring for pets; women's rights; birds; where sealskin, ivory and other animal products are sourced from; and good habits.$^{:228–229}$
Moore also published a pamphlet titled The Ethics of School Life, which was based on a lesson that Moore gave to students at Crane Technical High School.$^{:223}$

#### The Law of Biogenesis

In 1914, Moore published The Law of Biogenesis: Being Two Lessons on the Origin of Human Nature, a collection of 32 discourses originally developed as lectures for Crane Technical High School. The book includes an introduction by Mary Marcy, a radical socialist writer and the editor of the International Socialist Review.$^{:229}$ In the book, Moore analyses the theory of physical and mental recapitulation, which he termed "biogenesis", defining it as the process by which beings repeat the evolutionary development of their ancestors.
A reviewer for Life, in 1915, praised the book as an authoritative and straightforward summary that is engaging and fosters an educated perspective.$^{:229}$

#### Savage Survivals

Moore published Savage Survivals in 1916, a compilation of 63 of his lectures delivered at Crane Technical High School. Made-up of five sections covering the evolution and survival of domesticated animals, the savage ancestry of humans and an analysis from an ethical perspective of those surviving traits in humans considered to be civilized. It also contains 27 illustrations by Roy Olson and L. F. Simmons.$^{:229}$
F. Stuart Chapin's 1917 review in the American Journal of Sociology commends the book for effectively presenting organic and social evolution for children and as a solid treatise on prehistoric human evolution, but notes that some anthropological research is outdated.$^{:229–230}$

#### Other works

Moore independently authored numerous articles and pamphlets for humane organizations and journals,$^{:385}$ including the Humanitarian League, Millennium Guild, Massachusetts SPCA, American Anti-Vivisection Society, American Humane Association, and the Order of the Golden Age. Topics included the ethical and philosophical dimensions of vegetarianism, animal rights, and the human-animal relationship.$^{:223}$ He also wrote in support of the temperance movement$^{:280}$ and humane education.$^{:223}$
Moore was a fierce critic of American imperialism and America's actions in the Philippine–American War, publishing an article entitled "America's Apostasy", in 1899.$^{:321}$ He asserted that the United States had abandoned its foundational principles of liberty and justice, likening American soldiers in the Philippines to British redcoats during the American Revolution. He argued that the U.S. government's actions were hypocritical and tyrannical, replacing Spanish oppression with a worse form of imperialism. Moore called for a resurgence of true patriotism rooted in justice and humanity, decrying the moral decline and urging Americans to resist imperialistic tendencies and uphold the nation's original democratic ideals.
In 1908, he denounced Theodore Roosevelt and his hunting expedition to Africa in an article,$^{:228}$ describing him as having "done more in the last six months to dehumanise mankind than all the humane societies can do to counteract it in years." In another article, published in 1910, he described Roosevelt as a forceful personality with an intense obsession with killing.$^{:535}$
In June 1916, Moore published an article in the International Socialist Review, entitled "The Source of Religion", arguing that religion is a uniquely human creation that originated in the early stages of human development when the mind was just beginning to explore the world. It claims that religion is an outdated concept that persists mainly due to tradition, as modern science has revealed that all things, including religion, have a natural origin. Moore suggested that as scientific understanding grows, the need for religion diminishes, ultimately rendering it obsolete." The article provoked significant discussion.
Moore's last book, The Life of Napoleon, was finished, but never published.

### Advocacy and public speaking

Moore developed his oratory skills throughout his career as a teacher and public speaker. He frequently gave speeches, which were often printed and distributed as pamphlets or handed out for free. Moore discussed a variety of topics, including, the advantages of vegetarianism, the cruelty involved in wearing fur, the merits of socialist candidates, and issues related to animal rights, ethics, women's suffrage, hunting, war, and alcohol consumption. His dedication to these causes enhanced his eloquence, and he became known for his dramatic rhetorical style, which attracted significant attention.$^{:223–224}$
In November 1906, Moore's speech "The Cost of a Skin" sparked controversy at the American Humane Association's convention. In the speech, Moore denounced wearing fur and feathers for fashion as "conscienceless and inhumane". The audience reaction was mixed, with some applauding enthusiastically and others remaining silent; two women left the room before the speech was finished. The speech was later published as a chapter in The New Ethics (1907), as a pamphlet by the Animals' Friend Society of London,$^{:226–227}$ and in The Herald of the Golden Age.
On October 25, 1908, Moore addressed the Young People's Socialist League to endorse Eugene V. Debs for the U.S. presidency as the Socialist Party candidate. The Chicago Daily Tribune reported that Moore asserted Debs would target wealthy individuals for imprisonment rather than the usual victims who were populating prisons. Moore argued that young people represented the greatest potential for advancing socialism and noted that university students were particularly open to socialist teachings.$^{:227}$
The Millennium Guild, founded in 1912 by Emarel Freshel, was the first animal rights society established in the United States. In 1913, Moore was listed as a member of the Boston branch.
In 1913, Moore delivered a speech at the International Anti-vivisection and Animal protection Congress, held in Washington D.C. In the speech, he claimed that vivisection and the consumption of meat are both a product of anthropocentrism and that Darwin's On the Origin of Species had made any notion of human superiority or uniqueness untenable and ethically indefensible.$^{:229}$

### Death

In the early morning of June 17, 1916, at the age of 53, Moore died after shooting himself in the head with a revolver on Wooded Island in Jackson Park, Chicago. He had visited the island regularly to observe and study birds.
Moore had struggled for many years with a long illness and chronic pain from an abdominal operation, in 1911, for gallstones. He had also expressed continuing despondency at human indifference towards the suffering of their fellow animals.$^{:387}$ In a note found on his body by a police officer, he had written to his wife:$^{:230}$
   The long struggle is ended. I must pass away. Good-by. Oh, men are so cold and hard and half conscious toward their suffering fellows. Nobody understands. O my mother, and O my little girl! What will become of you? And the poor four-footed! May the long years be merciful! Take me to my river. There, where the wild birds sing and the waters go on and on, alone in my groves, forever. O, Tess, forgive me. O, forgive me, please!
Moore's death was ruled a suicide, due to a "temporary fit of insanity".$^{:230}$ His grief-stricken wife requested that Moore's body be cremated and his ashes sent to Mobile County, Alabama, to be buried in the land which Moore owned. His brother-in-law, Clarence Darrow, was devastated by Moore's death.
A funeral service was held at Oakwood Chapel in Chicago on June 19. Darrow delivered a eulogy, describing him as a "dead dreamer" who had died while "suffering under a temporary fit of sanity". The eulogy was later published in The Athena. Moore's body was returned to his old home near Cawker City and a funeral service was held at Plainview Church nearby. He was buried alongside his father, who had died several years earlier, in Excelsior Cemetery, Mitchell County, Kansas.

### Personal life
#### Marriage

Moore married Louise Jesse "Jennie" Darrow on February 21, 1899, in Racine, Wisconsin. She was the sister of renowned lawyer Clarence Darrow, and worked as a school teacher. She was also a fellow advocate for animal rights and vegetarianism. Both Moore and his wife were admirers of the character Tess from Thomas Hardy's Tess of the D'Urbervilles; he affectionately referred to his wife as Tess as a pet name. Moore was also an enthusiast of the works of Alexandre Dumas, which he first encountered at the Cawker City library.

#### Friendships
##### May Walden Kerr

Moore was a close friend of May Walden Kerr, the wife of Charles H. Kerr, who published many of Moore's books. Following the Kerr's divorce in 1904, Moore and Walden continued their correspondence and from time to time Moore and his wife vacationed with Walden and her daughter.$^{:226}$

##### Henry S. Salt

   Howard Moore was one of the truest and tenderest of our friends, himself prone to despondency and, as his books show, with a touch of pessimism, yet never failing in his support and encouragement of others and of all humanitarian effort. "What on earth would we Unusuals do, in this lonely dream of life," so he wrote in one of his letters, "if it were not for the sympathy and friendship of the Few?"
Moore first came to the attention of Henry S. Salt, co-founder of the Humanitarian League, and author of Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress, when he published Better-World Philosophy in 1899. Salt reviewed the book and began a correspondence with Moore that developed into a strong friendship.$^{:225}$
In a letter to Salt, Moore expressed his difficulty with writing, describing it as a demanding and agonising process, likening it to "sweating blood". He confessed to being overwhelmed by feelings of horror, which often left him immobilised and unable to write. Moore reflected on his situation, stating that he detested writing and believed he could be relatively content if not for the constant pressure to produce literary works.$^{:227}$
On 25 March 1911, Moore wrote to Salt about his experience of depression and a breakdown caused by overwork. He mentioned that although the books he had written might not achieve much, he had put a great deal of effort into producing them.$^{:228}$
In Salt's memoir, published in 1921, he expressed a belief that Moore had good reason for his suicide and was scornful of how timidly his death was covered in the majority of English animal advocacy journals. Salt dedicated his 1923 book The Story of My Cousins to Moore and in his 1930 autobiography Company I Have Kept, he reflected on the strength of their friendship, despite the fact that they never met in person.
Salt later described Moore's The Universal Kinship as the "best ever written in the humanitarian cause." A selection of Moore's letters to Salt was included in the appendix of the 1992 edition, edited by Charles R. Magel.

#### Lightning strike incident

In 1885, Moore was struck by lightning, receiving burns to his arm and chest and temporarily losing his sight and capacity for speech. He recovered after six days of bed rest. For the rest of his life, Moore suffered from severe headaches as a result of the injury. He later published an account of the incident in the Cawker City Public Record.

#### Commitment to wilderness preservation

Moore was an advocate of wilderness preservation. In 1914, he purchased 116.5 acres of land in Alabama, near Mobile Bay. In a letter written on his birthday that year, he described his land as being filled with various trees. Moore envisioned his Alabama property as a sanctuary for wildlife and a place of enjoyment for people, stating in his will that the land should be preserved as it was. He described the area as remote, abundant with wildlife, and containing around a mile of water from a river and brook.$^{:229}$

## Philosophy
### Universal Kinship

   Yes, do as you would be done by—and not to the dark man and the white woman alone, but to the sorrel horse and the gray squirrel as well; not to creatures of your own anatomy only, but to all creatures. You cannot go high enough nor low enough nor far enough to find those whose bowed and broken beings will not rise up at the coming of the kindly heart, or whose souls will not shrink and darken at the touch of inhumanity. Live and let live. Do more. Live and help live. Do to beings below you as you would be done by beings above you.
Moore's doctrine of Universal Kinship was a Darwinian secular philosophy grounded in the idea of shared evolutionary kinship among all sentient beings.$^{:365}$ It was deeply rooted in the belief that humanity needed to undergo significant ethical evolution. Moore argued that although humans had made remarkable physical advancements, they remained stunted in their ethical development, particularly in their treatment of animals.$^{:223–224}$
Moore, influenced by Darwinism, viewed moral anthropocentrism, which posits human superiority over other species, as the boldest and most revolting expression of human arrogance. Darwin's theory, which does not acknowledge the supremacy or special role of any species, led Moore to counter the idea of human centrality by asserting that "Man is not the end; he is but an incident, of the infinite elaboration of Time and Space", emphasizing that humans are not the central focus of existence.
Moore argued that it is solely human "moral provincialism" which hinders them from regarding animals with the same consideration as humans. Just as prejudice towards different races and genders is condemned, Moore asserted that animals, being sentient and conscious, have the same entitlement as humans to fair treatment in ways that reduce their suffering and enhance their well-being. He maintained that animals, similar to humans, should be viewed as ends-in-themselves, not as means for our dietary or clothing indulgences, due to their capacity to suffer. This ethical deficiency Moore saw in society was a source of profound despair for him and ultimately contributed to his decision to kill himself.$^{:223–224}$
Central to Moore's philosophy was the application of the Golden Rule—treating others as one would wish to be treated—to all sentient beings. He envisioned a future where humanity would progress ethically, paralleling their physical evolution. He believed that one day, humans would come to understand the moral imperative to treat animals with kindness and respect, not as mere commodities. This ethical awakening would signify a major milestone in human evolution, reflecting a deep, universal kinship among all living beings.$^{:223–224}$

### Sentiocentric utilitarianism

   The ideal relation of the inhabitants of the universe to each other, then, is that relation which will most actively conduce to the welfare of the universe; and the welfare of the universe means, not the welfare of any one individual or guild, but the welfare of all the beings who now inhabit it, and of those who shall come after—the welfare of that mighty and immortal personality who comprehends all species and continues from generation to generation—the Sentient Cosmos.
Moore advocated for sentiocentric utilitarianism. He asserted that every sentient being in the universe has a moral relationship with others, where actions can be judged as right or wrong depending on their impact. Right actions are those that lead to happiness, welfare, or complete living, while wrong actions result in misery, ill-being, or maladaptation. He held that this moral framework does not apply to the non-sentient universe, as it lacks the capacity for such relationships.$^{:79–80}$ Based on this, he contended that without sentience in the universe, the concept of ethics would cease to exist.

### Ethical vegetarianism

Moore contended that vegetarianism was not merely a dietary choice but a profound ethical stance rooted in compassion for all sentient beings. He believed that as humanity evolves in its understanding and empathy towards other forms of life, adopting vegetarianism becomes a moral imperative. In his view, this practice was the natural extension of an ethical framework that acknowledges the interconnectedness of all living creatures and their capacity for suffering. Thus, vegetarianism represented the ethical outcome of an evolving consciousness that recognizes the rights and dignity of all sentient life. Moore emphasized that this ethical evolution was deeply informed by the biological insights of Charles Darwin, arguing that Darwin's revelations on evolution and the kinship of all creatures expanded the boundaries of ethics to include all sentient beings.

### Socialism

Moore portrayed socialism as an inevitable outcome of human evolution, driven by the natural tendency of beings to cooperate rather than compete. He argued that, like early unicellular organisms that formed colonies to survive, human society is evolving towards greater collectivism, where the focus shifts from individualism to a more organized and harmonious social organism. Socialism, according to Moore, aimed to minimize the hereditary disadvantages imposed by the inanimate world and to create a more equitable society where the strong support the weak. He saw this as aligned with the broader evolutionary processes of the universe, suggesting that the eventual establishment of a socialist society is not only desirable but also inescapable as part of the natural progression of life.$^{:228–230}$

## Legacy
### Historical reception
#### Reactions to Moore's death

When reporting Moore's suicide, the Chicago Tribune labelled Moore a misanthrope. Relatives and friends, including his brothers-in-law Clarence and Everett Darrow, highlighted his kind nature, unwavering dedication to universal justice, and deep enthusiasm for educating young people.$^{:387}$ An obituary in the Humanitarian League's journal The Humanitarian, described Moore as "one of the most devoted and distinguished humanitarians with whom the League has had the honor of being connected."
Felix Ortt wrote about Moore's death in the Dutch animal protection magazine Androcles, highlighting his contributions to humanitarian and vegetarian causes, and describing his own involvement in translating Moore's works, including The Universal Kinship, as well as their correspondence. Louis S. Vineburg, who encountered Moore in early 1910 at a Young People's Socialist League lecture, later published a personal recollection in the International Socialist Review.$^{:230}$
Jack London, who had endorsed The Universal Kinship, and in his personal copy of the book marked the passage: "All beings are ends; no creatures are means. All beings have not equal rights, neither have all men; but all have rights", was greatly moved by Moore's death, writing at the head of a printed copy of Darrow's eulogy for Moore's funeral: "Disappointment like what made Wayland (Appeal to Reason) kill himself and many like me resign."

#### Impact of Moore's work

Due to the sustained promotion and dissemination efforts of the Humanitarian League, George Bell & Sons and The Animals Friend, Moore's views were generally more widely accepted and readily embraced in Britain compared to the United States. Unlike the British humanitarian movement, the American movement never successfully took hold and following Ernest Crosby's death, in 1907, Moore represented the remainder of the movement, which meant that his death effectively ended it. World War I ultimately brought the end to the wider humanitarian movement.$^{:341–342}$
Moore's advocacy of Darwinian arguments within the humanitarian movement were respected by contemporaries, but ultimately did not achieve widespread acceptance or significantly influence the movement after his death and his specific line of argument did not become central to the broader animal protection discourse of his time. After his death, no major figures or groups continued to champion his approach, leaving it as a relatively minor aspect of the movement's history.$^{:387–388}$

#### Posthumous publications and translations

In 1915, the International Socialist Review started excerpting Moore's works and continued to do so for the next three years. Following his death, various radical publications, including those of the Industrial Workers of the World, also began to feature excerpts from his works, particularly Savage Survivals.$^{:229–230}$
Several of Moore's works were translated into other languages: Savage Survivals and The Law of Biogenesis were translated into Croatian; Savage Survivals was translated into Chinese;$^{:229–230}$ three of his books were translated into Dutch by Felix Ortt; The Law of Biogenesis was translated into Slovak; and four of his books were translated into Japanese by various anarchist and socialist translators, including Ōsugi Sakae, Sakai Toshihiko, Hitoshi Yamakawa, and Yamakawa Kikue.

### Modern reception
#### Advocacy of ethical vegetarianism and animal rights

Moore was largely neglected by scholars until The Universal Kinship was republished in 1992 by Charles R. Magel, which generated renewed interest.$^{:230}$ Moore has since been described as an early advocate for ethical vegetarianism, whose contributions have been frequently overlooked. Historian of animal rights and vegetarianism Rod Preece noted that Moore's ethical vegetarian advocacy was ahead of its time, as there is no evidence of any direct effect on the American intelligentsia. He also highlighted Moore, along with Thomas Hardy and Henry S. Salt, as writers before World War I, who connected Darwinian evolution with animal ethics.
Moore's ethical approach has been compared to Albert Schweitzer and Peter Singer, with Moore's views identified as anticipating Singer's analysis of speciesism. Donna L. Davey claims that the recurring themes in Moore's works now form the basis of the modern animal rights movement.$^{:230}$ James J. Copp characterises Moore as a key figure in advocating for the ethical treatment of animals in the early 1900s. Bernard Unti contends that Moore's book, The Universal Kinship, establishes him as potentially the first American thinker in animal rights. Animal rights activist Henry Spira cited Moore as an example of a leftist who wasn't uncomfortable about advocating for animal rights.
Simon Brooman and Debbie Legge contend that Moore accurately foresaw that the treatment of animals in his era would be seen as entirely human-centric dominance, which would largely be supplanted by a new philosophy acknowledging the "unity and consanguinity" of all living organisms. Environmental historian Roderick Nash argues that Moore and Edward Payson Evans merit more acknowledgment for being the first philosophers in the United States to go beyond anthropocentric views.$^{:122}$
Selections of Moore's works were included in Jon Wynne-Tyson's 1985 book, The Extended Circle: A Dictionary of Humane Thought. Mark Gold cites Moore and Henry S. Salt as the two main inspirations for his 1995 book, Animal Rights: Extending the Circle of Compassion.

#### Scientific racism

Moore's last published book, Savage Survivals, has been criticized as an example of scientific racism by the prehistoric archaeologist Robin Dennell. Mark Pittenger argues that Moore's racism was influenced by Herbert Spencer's The Principles of Sociology and that similar views were held by contemporary American socialists. Gary K. Jarvis describes Moore as a critic of social Darwinism, asserting: "Moore argued that social Darwinists derived their beliefs from the worst examples that evolution offered, not the best."$^{:208}$

#### Perceptions of misanthropy

Bernard Unti asserts that the Chicago Tribune's unfavourable depiction of Moore as a misanthrope set a precedent followed by many historians attempting to position him within the context of American environmental ethics and that these interpretations often arise from limited analyses that do not consider Moore's broader critiques on human selfishness, his body of work, or his political ideology. Unti contends that Moore's views were not rooted in a disdain for humanity but rather in opposition to the domination of some humans over others and over animals. He was a committed socialist, dedicated to social justice for all, as demonstrated in his works, most of which were published by Charles H. Kerr, a prominent American socialist publisher and ethical vegetarian.$^{:387}$ Gary K. Jarvis echoes this, arguing that Moore's criticism of anthropocentrism and Western civilization for promoting it was incorrectly perceived as misanthropic.$^{:121}$

## Selected publications
### Articles

* "The Cost of Rum". Kirksville Democrat. January 8, 1892. p. 6.
* "Meat Not Needed as Food". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1895.
* "The Vegetarian Eating Club, of Chicago University". The Vegetarian. 1 (3): 42–44. September 15, 1895.
* "The Unconscious Holocaust". Good Health: A Journal of Hygiene. 32 (2): 74–76. February 1, 1897.
* "Why I Am a Vegetarian". Chicago Vegetarian. 2 (1). September 1897.
* "The Logic of Vegetarianism". Food, Home and Garden. 2 (13). Vegetarian Society of America: 22–23. January 1898.
* "Clerical Sportsmen". Chicago Vegetarian. 3: 5–6. November 1898.
* "The Psychical Kinship of Man and the Other Animals". The Humane Review: 121. July 1900.
* "How Vegetarians Observe the Golden Rule". The Vegetarian and Our Fellow Creatures (11): 295–297. August 15, 1901. hdl:2027/mdp.39015074773923.
* "Our Debt to the Quadruped". The Humane Review: 32. April 1902.
* "Realization". Herald of the Golden Age. 8: 119. 1903.
* "The Foundation of Good Health". Good Health. 39 (1): 6–7. January 1, 1904.
* "Universal Kinship". Herald of the Golden Age. 8: 38–42. April 1906.
* "Does Man Overestimate Himself?". Herald of the Golden Age. 11 (6): 121. April 1907.
* "The Cost of a Skin". Herald of the Golden Age. 11 (6): 140–141. July 1907.
* "Being Struck by Lightning". Cawker City Public Record. November 5, 1908. p. 5.
* "Superiority of a Vegetable Diet". The Present Truth. 25 (43): 682. October 28, 1909.
* "Decries Roosevelt Butchery" (PDF). Worlds Advance Thought and Universal Republic. 23 (1): 110. May–June 1909. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 16, 2017.
* "The Martyrs of Civilization". Herald of the Golden Age. 12 (8): 150–151. October 1909.
* "Treatment, Real and Ideal, of Animals". Lompoc Journal. November 6, 1909. p. 2.
* "Humanitarian in the Schools". The Humane Review: 198. 1909–1910.
* Allen, Henry E., ed. (1910). "Tending Toward 'a Celestial Civilization'" (PDF). To-Day's Problems and Their Solution (PDF). Chicago: Trade Union Book Concern. p. 11. Archived from the original on November 1, 2021.
* "Stop Eating Meat and Help Stop the Killing". Santa Cruz Sentinel. Vol. 56, no. 95. April 21, 1910.
* "Why Eat Meat?". Signs of the Times. 37 (25): 14. June 28, 1910.
* "Discovering Darwin". Proceedings of the International Anti-Vivisection and Animal Protection congress, held at Washington, D.C. December 8th to 11th, 1913. New York: The Tudor Press. 1913. pp. 152–158.
* "Evolution and Humanitarianism". The National Humane Review. 1 (1): 4. January 1913.
* "Ethical Education". Herald of the Golden Age. 16 (7): 180–182. July 1913.
* "Evidences of Relationship: 1. Man-like Apes". Our Dumb Animals. 47 (3). August 1914.
* "Evidences of Relationship". The Idaho Republican. November 13, 1914. p. 5.
* "Man's Inhumanity to Beast". Los Angeles Herald. Vol. 42, no. 98. February 23, 1916.
* "The Source of Religion". International Socialist Review. 16 (12): 726–727. June 1916.
* "Our Neglect of Ethical Culture". The Open Door. December 1916.

### Books

* Better-World Philosophy: A Sociological Synthesis. Chicago: The Ward Waugh Company. 1899. OCLC 5340920.
* Fermented Beverages: Their Effects on Mankind. London: Harrison and Sons. 1900. OCLC 1117891376.
* Bell, Ernest, ed. (1906). The Whole World Kin: A Study in Threefold Evolution. London: G. Bell & Sons. OCLC 752821941.
* The Universal Kinship. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co. 1906. OCLC 3704446.
* The New Ethics. London: Ernest Bell. 1907. OCLC 562001556.
* High School Ethics: Book One. London: G. Bell & Sons. 1912. hdl:2027/uc1.$b297002. OCLC 820734455.
* Ethics and Education. London: G. Bell & Sons. 1912. OCLC 919898381.
* The Law of Biogenesis: Being Two Lessons on the Origin of Human Nature. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co. 1914. OCLC 1019536598.
* Savage Survivals. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co. 1916. OCLC 7391868045.

### Pamphlets

* A Race of Somnambulists (Mount Lebanon, N.Y.: Lebanon Press, 1890)
* Why I Am a Vegetarian: An Address Delivered before the Chicago Vegetarian Society (Chicago: Frances L. Dusenberry, 1895)
* America's Apostasy (Chicago: The Ward Waugh Company, 1899)
* Clerical Sportsmen: A Protest Against the Vacation Pastime of Ministers of the Gospel (Chicago: Chicago Vegetarian)
* The Cost of a Skin (London: Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society)
* The Logic of Humanitarianism
* Humane Teaching in Schools (London: Animals' Friend Society, 1911)
* The Care of Illegitimate Children in Chicago (Chicago: Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago, 1912)
* The Ethics of School Life: A Lesson Given at the Crane Technical High School, Chicago, in Accordance with the Law Requiring the Teaching of Morals in the Public Schools of Illinois (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1912)