# Proto-Ryukyuan language

Proto-Ryukyuan is the reconstructed ancestor of the Ryukyuan languages, probably associated with the Gusuku culture in the early second millennium AD.

## Background

The modern Ryukyuan languages are spoken on the Ryukyu Islands, from the Amami Islands to Yonaguni. All Ryukyuan varieties are endangered; many speakers are aged late sixties or older, while younger speakers are only monolingual in Standard Japanese.

## Classification

Pellard (2009:249-275) gives a list of innovations in mainland Japanese and Ryukyuan, with some redocumented by Pellard (2015:15). For instance, in Ryukyuan, the general word for 'body' is *do C, and has been grammaticalized into a reflexive pronoun. The Ryukyuan languages also exhibit a semantic shift 'intestines' > 'belly' of PJ *wata B. However, Japanese also has some innovations not in Ryukyuan, such as the word otoko 'man' < 'young boy', kami 'hair' < 'top'.

### "Kyushu-Ryukyuan" hypothesis

There are some innovations shared with Ryukyuan and Kyushu dialects that have not been found in other mainland Japanese dialects. For instance, Yōsuke Igarashi (2018) claims that an innovation of Kyushu-Ryukyuan is to change kami-nidan verbs (-i(2)-) to shimo-nidan verbs (-e(2)-), a grammatical change of -kara from a ablative marker to a locative marker, and some vocabulary items (usually species) only found in such dialects. However, Pellard (2021) attempts refutes the hypothesis, citing typological and cross-linguistic reasons.

## Phonology
### Consonants

The following consonants can be reconstructed for Proto-Ryukyuan:
Proto-Ryukyuan consonants :
| | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar |
| Nasal | *m | *n | | |
| Stop | *p, *b | *t, *d | | *k |
| Fricative | | *s, *z | | |
| Tap | | *r [ɾ] | | |
| Approximant | *w | | *j | |
* Proto-Japonic *-p- generally lenites to *-w-, as in PJ *kapa 'river' > PR *kawa 'well' It is irregularly preserved in some words, mostly adjectives, which lead Thorpe to suggest a geminate consonant blocking lenition. However, nouns that don't sound emphatic also receive this irregular conservatism.
* Approximants in proto-Japonic preceding a high vowel are merged to a zero consonant in proto-Ryukyuan, such as PJ *upai 'above' > *uwe > PR *ue.
* No Ryukyuan dialects preserve the yotsugana distinction; in this case, it means that older *di ~ *zi and *du ~ *zu merge as *zi and *zu.
** One possible exception is that a special word for 'to take off (clothes)' exists in very few Miyako dialects (< *padok-): e.g. Hirara /padukɿ/. The regular conventions of proto-Ryukyuan would require an irregular change in the consonant *zu- > *do-.
* In various foreign transcriptions of Old Okinawan, some words exhibit pre-nasalized obstruents, and some dialects also have nasalization before voiced consonants, suggesting that Proto-Ryukyuan had pre-nasalized obstruents.

#### Reconstructing approximants
### Vowels

The following vowels can be reconstructed for Proto-Ryukyuan:
Proto-Ryukyuan vowels :
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | *i | | *u |
| Mid | *e | | *o |
| Open | | *a | |
All Ryukyuan languages have raised the mid-vowels *e and *o, but not all have merged these sounds with *i and *u. It is even possible the mid-vowels were already raised in Proto-Ryukyuan, but still distinct from the original high vowels. The dialects go through different developments depending on the preceding consonant. In various Northern Ryukyuan dialects, *i will often palatalize the preceding consonant. To give an example, Shuri ʔitɕi 'pond' < PR *ike, but Shuri ʔiku- 'how many?' < PR *eku.
Some Old Okinawan texts can preserve the distinction of Proto-Ryukyuan mid-vowels. For instance, the Old Okinawan anthology Omoro Sōshi records the word for 'snow, hail' as yoki 15 times, while yuki is only recorded once. This may suggest that the proto-form of such word had a mid-vowel *o.
Reflexes of PR *i, *e, *u, and *o :
| Proto-Ryukyuan | Amami (Koniya) | Okinawa (Nakijin-Yonamine) | Miyako (Ōgami) | Yaeyama (Ishigaki-Shika) | Yonaguni |
| *i | ʔi, N | ˀi, ʲi, N | ɿ, ɯ, s, N, ∅ | ɿ, N, ∅ | i, N, ∅ |
| *e | ʰɨ, i | ʰi, i | i | i | i |
| *u | ˀu, N | u, N | u, N, ∅ | u, N, ∅ | u, N, ∅ |
| *o | ʰu | u | u | u | u |
Examples of PR *i, *e, *u, and *o :
| Gloss | Proto-Ryukyuan | Amami (Koniya) | Okinawa (Nakijin-Yonamine) | Miyako (Ōgami) | Yaeyama (Ishigaki-Shika) | Yonaguni |
| daytime | *piru | çiɾ | pˀiɾuː | psː-ma | pɿːɾɿ | tsˀuː |
| garlic | *peru | ɸɨɾ | pʰiɾuː | piɯ | piŋ | çiɾu |
| horse | *uma | mˀaː | mˀaː | mmɑ | mma | mma |
| sea | *omi | ʔumi | ʔumi | im | iŋ ~ umɿ | iŋ ~ unnaga |
| mortar | *{u|o}su | ʔusɨ | ʔuɕi | us | usɿ | utɕi |
| medicine | *kusori | kusuɾ | kʰusui | ffuɯ | ɸuɕiɾɿ | tsˀuɾi |
Proto-Ryukyuan merged the Proto-Japonic diphthong *əi > *e, as in PJ *kəi 'tree' > PR *ke 'id.', PJ *əkəi- 'to get up' > PR *oke- 'id.'

### Prosody

Proto-Ryukyuan has at least three reconstructed tone classes, classified as class A, B, and C respectively. Class A regularly corresponds to the initial high register in Middle Japanese.
The correspondences of class B and C are somewhat complex. While both can regularly correspond to the initial low register in Middle Japanese, there exists a split that exists for the following low register accent classes in Middle Japanese: class 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.4, and 3.5. Accent classes 3.6 and 3.7 almost always correspond to class C in Ryukyuan.
Most dialects often have a penultimate tone on a class C noun, such as the Kametsu dialect in Toku-no-Shima, the Nakijin-Yonamine dialect of Nakijin, and the Tarama-Nakasuji dialect of Miyako (in carrier phrases only). On the other hand, some dialects, such as the Asama dialect in Toku-no-Shima, and the Shuri dialect in Okinawa, exhibit long vowels of the penultimate syllable; for Shuri, it is only exhibited in disyllables.
There has been no unproblematic explanation for why there has been a split in classes B and C in Proto-Ryukyuan for the aforementioned accent classes, so this split has been typically projected back to Proto-Japonic. The Kishima dialect of Saga has been reported to have a tonal split in class 2.5 nouns that correspond to the Ryukyuan tone class split.

## Grammar
### Verbs

Many Ryukyuan dialects have a conclusive and adnominal form that do not correspond straightforwardly to the Japanese ones. They are often palatalized, and such cases have been viewed to be derived from an infinitive *-i + *wor- 'to be; to stay'. Various scholars attempt to propose a common origin for this and the Japanese form -u, but it is problematic.
Basic forms of *kak- 'to write' in Northern Ryukyuan :
| Form | Old Japanese | Amami-Yamatohama | Yoron-Higashiku | Nakijin-Yonamine | Shuri | Kudaka |
| Negative | kakanu | kʰakaɴ | kakannu | hakaɴ | kakaɴ | hakaɴ |
| Infinitive | kaki1 | kʰaki | kakki | hatɕi- | katɕi | haki- |
| Conclusive | kaku | kʰakuɴ | kakuɴ | hatɕuɴ | katɕuɴ | hakiɴ |
| Adnominal | kaku | kʰakuɾu | kakjuɾu | hatɕuːɾu | katɕuɾu | hakiɾu |
| Provisional | kake2ba | kʰakɨba | kakiba | hakiːba | kakiwa [sic] | hakiba |
| Imperative | kake1 | kʰakɨ | kaki | kaki | haki | haki |
In some constructions in Northern Ryukyuan dialects, the word tends to use a different adnominal form, which can be compared to the Eastern Old Japanese and Hachijō adnominal -o, implying such could be reconstructed at the Proto-Japonic level.
Nakijin-Yonamine adnominal forms :
| Gloss | adnominal | old adnominal *-o | c.f. other words with *u |
| 'stand' | tʰatɕuːnu | tʰatu (†tʰatɕi) | 'summer' nàtɕíː < *natu |
| 'beat' | kʰuɾuːɕunu | kʰuɾuːɕu (†kʰuɾuːɕi) | 'mortar' ʔúɕì < *{u|o}su |
The origins of the Southern Ryukyuan forms are more difficult to establish.

### Adjectives

As with verbs, Ryukyuan adjectival forms are not cognate with the Japanese ones; they are derived from either the nominalizer *-sa ro *-ku + the auxiliary *-ar- 'to be'.

## Vocabulary

Thorpe (1983) reconstructs the following pronouns in Proto-Ryukyuan. For the first person, the singular and plural are assumed based on the Yonaguni reflex.
* *a, 'I' (singular)
* *wa 'we' (plural)
* *u, *e 'you' (singular)
* *uja, *ura 'you' (plural)
Ryukyuan numerals :
| | Proto-Ryukyuan | Amami (Yuwan) | Okinawa (Shuri) | Yaeyama (Ishigaki) | Miyako | Yonaguni |
| 1 | *pito | tïː- | tiː- | pitiː- | pitiː- | tˀu- |
| 2 | *puta | taː- | taː- | futaː- | ftaː- | tˀa- |
| 3 | *mi | miː- | miː- | miː- | miː- | miː- |
| 4 | *yo | juː- | juː- | juː- | juː- | duː- |
| 5 | *[i/e]tu | ɨtsɨ- | ici- | itsɨ- | itss- | ici- |
| 6 | *mu | muː- | muː- | muː- | mm- | muː- |
| 7 | *nana | nana- | nana- | nana- | nana- | nana- |
| 8 | *ya | jaa- | jaa- | jaː- | jaa- | daa- |
| 9 | *kokono | kuːnu- | kukunu- | kukunu- | kkunu- | kuɡunu- |
| 10 | *towo | tuː | tuː | tuː | tuː | tuː |
Pellard (2015) reconstructs the following cultural vocabulary words for Proto-Ryukyuan:
* *kome B 'rice'
* *mai A 'rice'
* *ine B 'rice plant'
* *momi A 'unhulled rice'
* *mogi B 'wheat'
* *awa B 'foxtail millet'
* *kimi B 'broomcorn millet'
* *umo B 'taro, yam'
* *patake C 'field'
* *ta B 'rice paddy'
* *usi A 'cow'
* *uwa C 'pig'
* *uma B 'horse'
* *tubo A 'pot'
* *kame C 'jar'
* *pune C 'boat'
* *po A 'sail'
* *ijako B 'paddle'