# Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies

The Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school (鴛鴦蝴蝶派) was a popular genre of Chinese fiction in the first half of the 20th century, especially in the 1910s and 1920s.
Mandarin ducks (which are frequently seen in pairs) and butterflies (from Butterfly Lovers) are traditional symbols of romantic love, but the genre encompassed more than romance stories: scandals and "high crimes" were also favorite subjects. Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies stories were disparaged by progressive writers of the May Fourth school for being essentially escapist and showing no social responsibility. The genre gradually fell out of favor following Japanese invasions in the 1930s.

## Development

In 1906, Shanghai, then China's largest trading port, boasted as many as 66 published periodicals, contributing to a national total of 239. These publications not only featured political commentaries and news but also included poems and entertainment articles. Over time, these evolved into special sections known as "supplements," which eventually led to the emergence and separate publication of literary journals. Notable among these were "New Fiction" (1902) founded by Liang Qichao, "Illustrated Stories" (1903) edited by Li Baojia, "Monthly Fiction" (1906) edited by Wu Woyao and Zhou Guisheng, and "Forest of Stories" (1907) edited by Wu Mosi. These urban literary magazines, reliant on trading ports, modern cities, the printing industry, and mass media systems, not only catered to the leisure and entertainment needs of urban citizens—thereby establishing a market and readership—but also provided material support for intellectuals who, for various reasons, had deviated from the traditional career path of "學而優則仕" ("The student, having completed his studies, should enter into government service.")
This shift facilitated the transition from traditional literati to modern professional writers, solidifying the profession of writers who relied on periodicals, readership markets, and remuneration for their livelihood. By the end of the Qing dynasty, a number of professional writers had emerged. "History of Late Qing Novels" notes that the prosperity of novels during the late Qing era was primarily due to the development of the printing industry, which eliminated the difficulties of engraving books, and the boom in the news industry, which increased production demand. After the 1911 Revolution, the number of periodicals surged, reaching 500 in just that year alone. From the late Qing to the literary revolution of 1917, there were nearly 30 literary magazines named after novels. The proliferation of these periodicals and their corresponding printing and publishing systems were products of societal modernization, collectively forming a system of cultural and literary production and consumption, a public media system, and a "cultural public space".
Following the 1911 Revolution, Mandarin Duck and Butterfly fiction, relying on this systematized press and magazine environment, became popular by catering to the cultural consumption needs of urban citizens. The creators of Mandarin Duck and Butterfly fiction thus became specialized, professional writers who depended on periodicals, media systems, and manuscript fees for their livelihood.

## Influence of socio-political changes

Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies fiction was widely consumed by urban readers and became especially prominent in Shanghai, which had a booming publishing industry during this time. Stories were frequently serialized in popular newspapers and magazines, contributing to the rise of mass-market fiction. This genre thrived on providing emotional comfort and entertainment to an audience experiencing the rapid changes of modernization and Westernization.
However, progressive May Fourth Movement intellectuals heavily criticized the genre. They disparaged it as escapist, arguing that it failed to engage with social issues and lacked the reformative zeal that modern Chinese literature should embody. They saw it as a hindrance to the development of a more socially responsible literary tradition. As a result of these critiques and changing socio-political climates, the popularity of Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies fiction waned, particularly after the Japanese invasion in the 1930s.

## Notable works

Zhang Henshui's 1930 novel Fate in Tears and Laughter is a representative work of this school. Su Manshu's The Lone Swan captures the melancholic tones characteristic of the genre.
Despite its initial popularity, Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature was largely marginalized in later literary histories, but it has since attracted renewed academic interest for its role in reflecting the cultural anxieties and desires of early 20th-century urban Chinese society.