# Raga language

Raga (also known as Hano) is the language of northern Pentecost Island in Vanuatu. Like all Vanuatu languages, Raga belongs to the Oceanic subgroup of the Austronesian languages family. In old sources the language is sometimes referred to by the names of villages in which it is spoken, such as Bwatvenua (Qatvenua), Lamalanga, Vunmarama and Loltong.
It is the most conservative language of Pentecost Island, having preserved final vowels while also retaining the five-vowel system inherited from Proto-Oceanic, compared to other languages spoken on the island, which have all developed additional vowels in addition to pervasive vowel deletion.
With an estimated 6,500 native speakers (in the year 2000), Raga is the second most widely spoken of Pentecost's five native languages (after Apma), and the seventh largest vernacular in Vanuatu as a whole. There are significant communities of Raga speakers on Maewo island and in Port Vila and Luganville as a result of emigration from Pentecost. Walter Lini, the independence leader of Vanuatu, was a native Raga speaker.
The Raga spoken by most people today is heavily mixed with Bislama, Vanuatu's national language. The Turaga indigenous movement, based at Lavatmanggemu in north-eastern Pentecost, have attempted to purge the language of foreign influences by coining or rediscovering native words for introduced concepts such as "torch battery" (vat bongbongi, literally "night stones") and "hour" (ngguha, literally "movement"). Members of the Turaga movement write in Raga language using Avoiuli, a unique writing system inspired by local sand drawings.
Raga is generally considered an easy language to speak and learn, and is known as a second language by a number of speakers of other Vanuatu languages.
Modern Raga is relatively homogeneous, with no significant dialectal variation. A distinctive southern dialect of Raga, Nggasai, is now extinct; its last native speaker died in 1999.
Several grammatical sketches, vocabulary lists and short papers on Raga have been published, beginning with the work of R H Codrington and von der Gabelentz in the late 19th century, and a number of religious texts have been translated into the language.

## Name

The name Raga refers to the native name of Pentecost Island in the language, which can appear with the locative marker a-, giving Araga. In Tamambo, spoken in Malo Island, a cognate form Araha refers to the same island. The name Hano literally means "what".

## Phonology

The consonants of Raga are as follows,
Raga consonants :
| | | Labial | Labial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal |
| | | plain | labialized | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | mʷ ⟨mw⟩ | n | ŋ ⟨n̄⟩ | |
| Plosive | voiced | b ~ p ⟨b⟩ | bʷ ⟨bw⟩ | d | ᵑɡ ⟨ḡ⟩ | |
| Plosive | voiceless | | | t | k | |
| Fricative | Fricative | v ~ f ⟨v⟩ | vʷ ~ fʷ ⟨vw⟩ | s | ɣ ~ x ⟨g⟩ | h |
| Rhotic | Rhotic | | | ɾ ⟨r⟩ | | |
| Sonorant | Sonorant | | w | l | | |
In this article, the sounds /ŋ/ and /ᵑɡ/ (like the ng of 'singer' and 'finger', respectively), which are written n̄ and ḡ in standard orthography, are written ng and ngg. G is typically pronounced like the ch in Scottish "loch".
Prenasalization of the voiced plosives, such that b becomes mb (always voiced) and d becomes nd, occurs when the preceding consonant is nasal (m, n or ng). Thus mabu "rest" is pronounced mambu.
V, vw are labiodental, unlike in Apma to the immediate south, where they are bilabial [β, w]. Descriptions describe v as [v] and g as [x] more commonly than as [f] or [ɣ], but there is evidently some variation.
/ɾ/ can be in free variation with a trill [r].
Raga has the five basic vowels /i, e, a, o, u/. Vowels are not generally distinguished for length.
Word roots in Raga nearly always end with a vowel. However, word-final vowels are often dropped within phrases, so that, for example, tanga "basket" and maita "white" combine to make tang maita "white basket".
Stress occurs on the penultimate syllable of a word.

## Grammar

Basic word order in Raga is subject–verb–object.

### Pronouns

Personal pronouns are distinguished by person and number. They are not distinguished by gender. The basic pronouns are as follows:
| | | Singular | Dual | Plural |
| 1st person | inclusive | inau | gidaru | gida |
| 1st person | exclusive | inau | kamaru | kamai |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | ginggo | kimiru | kimiu |
| 3rd person | 3rd person | kea | kera | kera |

### Nouns

Plurality is indicated by placing ira before a noun:
    manu = [the] bird
    ira manu = [the] birds
Nouns may be suffixed to indicate whom an item belongs to. For example:
    iha = name
    ihaku = my name
    ihamwa = your name
    ihana = his/her name
    ihan ratahigi = the chief's name
Possession may also be indicated by the use of possessive classifiers, separate words that occur before the noun and take possessive suffixes. These classifiers are:
* no- for general possessions (nonggu tanga, "my basket")
* bila- for things that are cared for, such as crops and livestock (bilada boe, "our pig")
* ga- for things to be eaten (gam bweta, "your taro")
* ma- for things to be drunk (mara wai, "their water")
Historically there was also a classifier wa- for sugarcane to be chewed (wan toi, "his sugarcane"); this has fallen out of use among younger speakers.
The possessive suffixes are as follows:
| | | Singular | Dual | Plural |
| 1st person | inclusive | -ku or -nggu | -daru | -da |
| 1st person | exclusive | -ku or -nggu | -maru | -mai |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | -mwa | -miru | -miu |
| 3rd person | 3rd person | -na | -ra | -ra |
| Generic | Generic | -i | -i | -i |
A verb may be transformed into a noun by the addition of a nominalising suffix -ana:
    bwalo = to fight (verb)
    bwaloana = a fight (noun)
Modifiers generally come after a noun:
    vanua = island
    vanua kolo = small island
    vanua gairua = two islands

### Verbs

Verbs in Raga are usually preceded by a subject pronoun and by a tense–aspect–mood marker.
The subject pronouns are as follows:
| | | Singular | Plural |
| 1st person | inclusive | na- | ta- |
| 1st person | exclusive | na- | ga- |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | go- | gi- |
| 3rd person | 3rd person | | ra- |
There is no 3rd person singular subject pronoun ("he/she/it").
Raga has five sets of tense–aspect–mood markers:
| TAM | Used for | Marker (full form) | Marker (short form) |
| Imperfective | Actions in the present tense Temporary or changing states | mwa | -m |
| Perfective | Actions in the past tense Fixed states | nu | -n |
| Potential | Things that may happen in the future | vi | -v or -i |
| Prospective | Things that are about to happen | men | -men |
| Hypothetical | Things that have not happened and probably won't | si | -s |
The full forms of these markers are used in the 3rd person singular, when there is usually no subject pronoun:
    mwa lolia = he does it
    nu lolia = he did it
    vi lolia = he will do it
Elsewhere, short forms of these markers are suffixed to the subject pronoun:
    nam lolia = I do it
    nan lolia = I did it
    nav lolia = I will do it
There are also dual (two-person) forms incorporating a particle ru "two":
    ram lolia = they do it
    ramuru lolia = the two of them do it
Historically there were trial (three-person) forms incorporating a particle dol or tol, but these have fallen out of use.
Imperatives can consist of a verb with no marker. In third person forms, there is a marker na-:
    Mai teti! = Come here!
    Ihamwa na sabuga = May your name be holy
There is a pattern of verb-consonant mutation whereby v at the start of a verb changes to b, vw to bw, g to ngg, and t to d. This mutation occurs in imperfective aspect, and in the presence of the additive marker mom:
    nan vano = I went
    nam bano = I am going
Negative sentences are indicated with the two-part marker hav...te(he) "not", which encloses the verb and anything suffixed to it:
    nan hav lolia tehe = I didn't do it
The passive voice can be formed by attaching the suffix -ana to the verb:
    nu lolia = he did it
    nu loliana = it was done
The direct object immediately follows the verb. Some object pronouns take the form of suffixes attached to the verb:
| Person | Raga | English |
| 1st person singular | -(a)u | "me" |
| 2nd person singular | -go | "you" (singular) |
| 3rd person singular (or inanimate plural) | -a or -e | "him" / "her" / "it" (or "them") |
| 3rd person plural (animate) | -ra | "them" |
In some cases a particle -ni- interposes between the verb and the object pronoun:
    nam doronia = I like it

## Sample phrases

| English | Raga |
| Where are you going? | Gomen van (hala) behe? |
| Where have you come from? | Gon mai (hala) behe? |
| Where is it? | Mwa $^n$do (hala) behe? |
| It's here | Mwa $^n$do teti |
| Come here! | Mai teti! |
| Go away! | Van dagai! |
| What's your name? | Ihamwa be ihei? |
| My name is... | Ihaku be... |
| Where are you from? | Ginggo ata behe? / Ginggo nin behe? |
| I am from... | Inau ata... / Inau nin... |
| How much? / How many? | Gaiviha? |
| one | tea / gaituvwa |
| two | (gai)rua |
| three | (gai)tolu |
| four | (gai)vasi |
| five | (gai)lima |
| six | (gai)ono |
| seven | (gai)bitu |
| eight | (gai)vwelu |
| nine | (gai)sivo |
| ten | hangvulu |
| Thank you | Tabeana |
| It's just fine | Nu tavuha ngano |