# Assiniboine language

The Assiniboine language (/əˈsɪnəbɔɪn/; also known as Assiniboin, Hohe, or Nakota, Nakoda, Nakon or Nakona, or Stoney) is a Nakotan Siouan language of the Northern Plains. The name Assiniboine comes from the term Asiniibwaan, from Ojibwe, meaning 'Stone Siouans'. The reason they were called this was that Assiniboine people used heated stone to boil their food. In Canada, Assiniboine people are known as Stoney Indians, while they called themselves Nakota or Nakoda, meaning 'allies'.

## Classification

The Dakotan group of the Siouan family has five main divisions: Dakota (Santee-Sisseton), Dakota (Yankton-Yanktonai), Lakota (Teton), Nakoda (Assiniboine) and Nakoda (Stoney). Along with the closely related Stoney, Assiniboine is an n variety of the Dakotan languages, meaning its autonym is pronounced with an initial n (thus: Nakʰóta as opposed to Dakʰóta or Lakʰóta, and Nakʰóda or Nakʰóna as opposed to Dakʰód or Lakʰól). The Assiniboine language is also closely related to the Sioux language and to the Stoney language (likewise called Nakoda or Nakota), although they are hardly mutually intelligible.

### D-N-L classification system

The Assiniboine language (Nakota), the Dakota language and the Lakota language are usually classified into a group with D-N-L subgroup classification. As suggested by the name of the system, the variation in pronunciations of certain words follows the D-N-L rule. A typical example is given below:
| Language group | 'greasy' |
| Santee-Sisseton | sda |
| Yankton-Yanktonai | sda |
| Teton | sla |
| Assiniboine | sna |
| Stoney | thna |
Santee-Sisseton and Yankton-Yanktonai are languages that belong to the Dakotan group and Teton is a language in the Lakotan group. The table above illustrates a typical variation amongst these three languages. Just as the name of these three tribes suggest, the Dakota language, the Lakota language and the Nakota (Assiniboine) language have respective inclinations towards /d/, /l/, and /n/ in some substitutable consonants.

#### Arguments against the classification system

Some scholars argue that the D-N-L classification system may not be totally accurate due to the non-rigidness of the substitution form. Siouan Indians live on an expansive continuum such that the distinction between different languages does not manifest in a rigid, clear-cutting criterion. Historically, linguists have debated on Yankton-Yanktonai languages and their proper positions into the D-N-L classification system, but the coexistence of /d/ and /n/ phonemes made such classification doubtful. This example of lexical difference between the languages of the Siouan group illustrates another possible distinction besides the D-N-L variations.
| Language group | 'horse' |
| Santee-Sisseton | súkataka |
| Yankton-Yanktonai | sukawaka |
| Teton | sukawaká |
| Assiniboine | súkataka |
| Stoney | suwatâga |

### Related languages

Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney are closely related languages of the Dakota family. Many linguists consider Assiniboine and Stoney to be dialects. However, they are mutually unintelligible. Parks and DeMallie report that they are not variant forms of a single dialect, but that Assiniboine is closer to the Sioux dialects than it is to Stoney. The exact number of interrelationships among the subdialects and dialects comprising this continuum is unknown.
| Dialect group | Self-designation | Political designation |
| Santee-Sisseton | Dakhóta | Sioux |
| Yankton-Yanktonai | Dakȟóta | Sioux |
| Teton | Lakȟóta | Sioux |
| Assiniboine | Nakhóta | Assiniboine |
| Stoney | Nakoda | Stoney |

## Geographic distribution

The languages of the Dakotan group are spoken in the following regions:
* Canada
** Alberta
** Manitoba
** Saskatchewan
* United States
** Minnesota
** Montana
** Nebraska
** North Dakota
** South Dakota
| Reservation or reserve | Dialect |
| Alberta ||
| Alexis | Stoney / Nakoda / Isga |
| Big Horn | Stoney / Îyârhe Nakoda / Nakoda |
| Eden Valley | Stoney / Îyârhe Nakoda / Nakoda |
| Paul | Stoney / Nakoda / Isga |
| Stoney (Morley) | Stoney / Îyârhe Nakoda / Nakoda |
| Saskatchewan ||
| Carry the Kettle | Assiniboine / Nakhóta |
| Moose Woods (White Cap) | Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai) / Dakhóta / Dakȟóta |
| Mosquito-Grizzly Bear's Head | Assiniboine / Nakhóta |
| Sioux Wahpeton (Round Plain) | Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai) / Dakhóta / Dakȟóta |
| Standing Buffalo | Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai) / Dakhóta / Dakȟóta |
| Whitebear | Assiniboine / Nakhóta |
| Wood Mountain | Sioux (Teton) / Lakȟóta |
| Manitoba ||
| Birdtail | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Oak Lake | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Sioux Valley | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Sioux Village-Long Plain | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| North Dakota ||
| Devil's Lake | Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai) / Dakhóta / Dakȟóta |
| Standing Rock | Sioux (Yanktonai) / Dakȟóta |
| South Dakota ||
| Cheyenne River | Sioux (Teton) / Lakȟóta |
| Crow Creek | Sioux (Yanktonai) / Dakȟóta |
| Flandreau | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Lower Brule | Sioux (Teton) / Lakȟóta |
| Pine Ridge | Sioux (Teton) / Lakȟóta |
| Rosebud | Sioux (Teton) / Lakȟóta |
| Sisseton | Sioux (Teton) / Lakȟóta |
| Standing Rock | Sioux (Teton) / Lakȟóta |
| Yankton | Sioux (Yankton) / Dakȟóta |
| Nebraska ||
| Santee | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Minnesota ||
| Lower Sioux | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Prairie Island | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Prior Lake | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Upper Sioux | Sioux (Santee) / Dakhóta |
| Montana ||
| Fort Belknap | Assiniboine / Nakhóta |
| Fort Peck | Assiniboine, Sioux (Yanktonai, Sisseton) / Nakhóta / Dakȟóta / Dakhóta |

## Official status

The Assiniboine language is not a government-recognized official language of any state or region where Assiniboine people live. There are two reservations located in Montana, but the official language of the state is English. An estimate of native speakers ranges from less than 50, to about 100, to about 150 Assiniboine people, most of them elderly. A 2021 study of Indigenous languages in Canada put Assiniboine at 350 speakers.

## Phonology

The phonemic inventory has 27 consonants, which includes aspirated, plain, and ejective stops. In addition to this, it has five oral vowels and three nasal vowels. It is a structure-preserving language. Assiniboine has no definite or indefinite articles, no nominal case system, and no verbal tense marking. Clauses unmarked are "realized," while clauses marked as "potential" by means of verbal enclitic, which is successful in producing a future/non-future distinction. The verbal system is split into active and stative (split-intransitive). The active object pronominal affixes coincide with the stative verbs of the subject pronominal affixes.
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Palatal or postalveolar | Velar | Glottal |
| Plosive | Plain | p | t | tʃ | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | Ejective | pʼ | tʼ | tʃʼ | kʼ | ʔ |
| Plosive | Aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | ʔ |
| Fricative | Voiceless | | s | ʃ | x | |
| Fricative | Ejective | | sʼ | ʃʼ | xʼ | |
| Fricative | Voiced | | z | ʒ | ɣ | |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w | | j | | h |
The affricates and stops of Assiniboine are often described as voiced rather than voiceless, due to intervocalic voicing rules which result in surface voiced forms.

### Oral vowels

| Character used | IPA symbol | Assiniboine pronunciation |
| i | i | i as in police |
| u | u | oo as in book |
| e | e | e as in a in mate |
| o | o | o as in vote |
| a | a | a as in father |

### Nasal vowels

| Character | IPA symbol | Also used as |
| ą | ã | aⁿ, an, aη, aN |
| į | ĩ | iⁿ, in, iη, iN |
| ų | ũ | uⁿ, oⁿ, un, uη, uN |
There are five oral vowels in Assiniboine, /i u e o a/, and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ũ ã/.
Words that follow the above rules:
* /bahá/ 'hill'
* /pahá/ 'hair'
* /čupó/ 'fog'
* /ptą/ 'otter'
* /pka/ 'heavy'
* /psi/ 'rice'
* /pša/ 'to sneeze'

### Syllable structure

Syllables are primarily of CV structure. While codas are possible, they are restricted and uncommon, often becoming restructured as the onset of the following syllable. Onsets may include up to two consonants but codas must be simplex. Possible onset clusters are given in the following table:
| | | Second | Second | Second | Second | Second | Second | Second | Second |
| | | p | t | k | s | š | c | m | n |
| First | p | - | ptąptąotter | - | psįpsįrice | pšApšAsneeze | napcAnapcAswallow | - | - |
| First | t | - | - | tkAtkAheavy | - | - | - | - | - |
| First | k | kpamnikpamniserve | ktektekill | - | ksuyAksuyAhurt | kšikšAkšikšAcurly | pakcApakcAcomb | kmųkAkmųkAsnare | knikniarrive |
| First | s | spayAspayAwet | stustAstustAtired | skąskąmelt | - | - | scuscubashful | smunasmunafine | snisnicold |
| First | š | špąšpącooked | štuštAštuštAsalty | škatAškatAplay | - | - | šcųkašcųkalazy | šmašmadeep | šnošnomelt |
| First | x | xpąxpąsoaked | xtayetuxtayetuevening | - | - | - | xcinaxcinatattered | xmaxmasleepy | xnixnihave a sore |
| First | m | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | mnAmnAsmell |

## Grammar
### Morphology

Morphological processes for Assiniboine language are primarily agglutinating. In addition, the character of morpheme alternation in Assiniboine may be classified in terms of phoneme loss, phoneme shift, contraction, nasalization loss, syllable loss, syntactic contraction, and syntactic alternation.

#### Morphophonemics

Examples from Levin (1964).
Contraction->When two syllabics come into contact they contract as in:

##### /a/+/i/ > /i/

ápa
íyapi
ápayapi
ápa + íyapi > ápayapi
morning + {they go} > {they stayed awake until morning}
nakóta
iápi
nakótiapi
nakóta + iápi > nakótiapi
ally + {they speak} > {a little Indian (to speak)}

##### /i/+/i/ > /i/

ohómini
íyapi
(a) óhominiyapi
ohómini + íyapi > {(a) óhominiyapi}
circle + {they go} > {they circle}

##### /a/+/u/ > /u/

wicá
úkkupica
wicúkkupica
wicá + úkkupica > wicúkkupica
them + {we give} > {we give them}
Phoneme loss: Syllabics
when /a/ is in medial position between /k/ and /h/:

##### /a/> /∅/

waníyaka
hi
waníyakshi
waníyaka + hi > waníyakshi
{to see you} + {he comes} > {he came to see you}
when /o/ is in the medial position between /i/ and /k/:

##### /o/>/∅/

ukíce
okáxniga
ukícaxnigapi
ukíce + okáxniga > ukícaxnigapi
{we ourselves} + {to understand} > {we understand each other}
when /e/ is in medial position between /p/ and /k/:

##### /e/>/Φ/

napé
kóza
napkóza
napé + kóza > napkóza
hand + {to wave} > {to beckon}
Phoneme loss: semi-syllabics

##### /y/ follows /n/

mn
yuhá
mnuhá
mn + yuhá > mnuhá
I + {to have} > {I have}
Phoneme loss: non-syllabics
/k/ is in medial position between /u/ and /k/ or /u/ and /h/ or /u/ and /n/ or /u/ and /y/

##### /k/ > /∅/

uk
kágapi
ukágapi
uk + kágapi > ukágapi
we + {they make} > {we make}
uk
ya
naxú
nauyaxúpi
uk + ya + naxú > nauyaxúpi
we + you + {to hear} > {you hear us}
Phoneme shift: syllabics

##### /i/ > /a/ before /n/

awáci
ni
awácani
awáci + ni > awácani
{to think} + you > {you think}
Phoneme shift: non-syllabics
When /a/--/e/ is in medial position between /g/ and /š/

##### /g/ > /x/

okáxnige
-ši
owákaxnixeši
okáxnige + -ši > owákaxnixeši
{to understand} + -NEG > {I don't understand}
When /a/--/e/ is in medial position between /g/ and /c/

##### /g/ > /x/

okáxniga
-ce
wa
owákaxnixace
okáxniga + -ce + wa > owákaxnixace
{to understand} + -ITER + I > {I understand}
When /g/ is in medial position between /a/ and /y/

##### /g/ > /x/

icáge
-ya
icáxya
icáge + -ya > icáxya
{to grow} + -CAUS > {to cause to grow}
Nasalization loss exists as follows:

##### /ą/ > /a/

mázą
ska
mazáska
mázą + ska > mazáska
iron + white > money
Syllable loss occurs as follows:
    /ye/ > /Φ/ Ex) iyópe... ye 'to pay' so, iyópe + wa + ye > iyópewa 'I pay'
Syntactic contraction: personal inflectional morphemes

##### wa 'I' + ni 'you' > ci 'I...you';

kku
ci
-kta
cicúta
kku + ci + -kta > cicúta
{to give} + {I... you} + -FUT > {I will give you}
Syntactic contraction with verbal themes occurs as follows:

##### /i/ + /k/ – /kk/ > c;

i
kahíta
icáhita
i + kahíta > icáhita
{with something} + {to sweep} > broom
Syntactic alternation

##### /a/ > /e/ in verbal theme

wamnáka
wamnáke
wamnáka > wamnáke
{I saw} > {I saw}

##### /a/>/e/ in nomial theme

skúya
skúye
skúya > skúye
sweet > sweet

##### /a/>/e/ with the future suffix;

wicákkupikta
wicákkupikte
wicákkupikta > wicákkupikte
{they will be given} > {they will be given}

### Syntax

Assiniboine has SOV word order. The order of elements may differ from canonical SOV; this is not free nor scrambling word order, but instead, the result of topicalization or other movements. Out-of-context sentences are always interpreted as SOV order even if it sounds odd. For example, 'the man bit the dog', unless an element is moved into a focus position. Focused element sentences are highly marked, and practically, a strange semantic reading is preferred over an interpretation of OSV. For example, the following sentence was interpreted as 'A banana ate the boy' by a native speaker, and to get the OSV reading out of it the object must be stressed, for example if the sentence was given as a reply to the question 'What did the boy eat?'.
škóškobena
banana
wãži
a
hokšína
boy
že
DET
yúda.
ate
škóškobena wãži hokšína že yúda.
banana a boy DET ate
'A banana ate the boy.' (or 'The boy ate a banana.')
Class 1
    wa- 1st person+singular
    ya- 2nd person
Class 2
    ma- 1st person+singular
    ni- 2nd person
For both class 1 and 2
    ũ- 1st person-singular
    o- 3rd person
    wica- 3rd person
    ci- 1st person + singular subject/ 2nd person object

## Vocabulary

* wąži – one
* nųba – two
* yamni – three
* tópa – four
* záptą – five
* šákpe – six
* iyušna – seven
* šaknoğą – eight
* napcuwąga – nine
* wikcémna – ten
* saba – black
* ska – white
* ša – red
* to – blue
More words can be found in the Dakota-English Dictionary.