# Northern Adelbert languages

The Northern Adelbert or Pihom–Isumrud languages are a family of twenty languages in the Madang stock of New Guinea. The occupy the coastal northern Adelbert Range of mountains directly opposite Karkar Island, as opposed to the Southern Adelbert languages, another branch of Madang.
Malcolm Ross posited a "linkage" connecting the Northern Adelbert languages with the Mabuso languages, and named this group Croisilles /krɔɪˈsɪlz/, as the two families bracket Cape Croisilles (Northern Adelbert to the north, Mabuso to the south). However, Ross never claimed Croisilles was an actual language family, and other researchers have rejected the connection.

## Languages

There are approximately 20 Northern Adelbert languages.
Below is a comparison of Northern Adelbert language names in Pick (2020) and Z'graggen (1980). A few alternate names from Capell (1952) are also given.
| Pick (2020) | Z'graggen (1980) | ISO 639-3 |
| Amako | Korak | koz |
| Barem | Bunabun (Z'graggen 1980), Bunubun (Capell 1952) | buq |
| Bargam | Mugil | mlp |
| Bepour | Bepour | bie |
| Gavak | Dimir | dmc |
| Hember Avu | Musar (Z'graggen 1980), Amben (Petir et al 1996), Vanembere (Capell 1952) | mmi |
| Karian | Bilakura | bql |
| Kobol | Koguman | kgu |
| Kowaki | Kowaki | xow |
| Maia | Pila, Saki | sks |
| Maiani | Tani | tnh |
| Mala | Pay | ped |
| Miani | Tani (Z'graggen 1980), Banar (Capell 1952) | pla |
| Manep | Malas | mkr |
| Mauwake | Ulingan | mhl |
| Mawak | Mawak | mjj |
| Moere | Moere | mvq |
| Mokati | Wanambre | wnb |
| Pal | Abasakur | abw |
| Pamosu | Hinihon | hih |
| Parawen | Parawen | prw |
| Ukuriguma | Ukuriguma | ukg |
| Usan | Wanuma | wnu |
| Waskia | Waskia | wsk |
| Yaben | Yaben | ybm |
| Yarawata | Yarawata | yrw |

## Classification

Croisilles was first posited by Malcolm Ross (1995), not as an actual language family, but as a linkage. It was a merger of Wurm's Pihom-Isumrud-Mugil and Mabuso stocks, each of which contained 25–30 languages. Pick (2017, 2020) and Usher reject the merger, and provisionally the inclusion of Mugil (Bargam), though Pick retains the name. Usher disambiguates the (non-Mabuso) family as 'Adelbert Range'.

### Usher (2020)

Timothy Usher classifies the languages as follows.
* Adelbert Range – Isumrud Strait
** Kowan (Isumrud Strait): Waskia, Korak (Amako)
** (North) Adelbert Range
*** Yamben
*** Omosan (Omosa River): Pal (Abasakur), Kobol (Koguman)
*** Gilagil River (old Isumrud proper)
**** Dimir (Gavak)
**** [old Mabuan]: Brem (Bunabun), Malas (Manep)
*** Northwest Adelbert Range (Mount Pihom)
**** Kaukombar River: Mala (Pay), Miani (Maiani, Tani), Maia (Pila, Saki)
**** Kumil–Timper
***** Kumil River: Bepour, Mauwake (Ulingan), Moere
***** Tiboran River (Timper River): Musar; Wanambre; Kowaki, Mawak, Pamosu (Hinihon)
*** Mabulap–Numugen
**** Amaimon (Mabulap) isolate
**** Numugen River (see)

### Pick (2020)

Below is Andrew Pick's (2020) classification of the Northern Adelbert languages.$^{:14}$
* Northern Adelbert languages
** Manep–Barem languages: Manep, Barem
** Kumil–Tibor languages
*** Kumil languages: Mauwake, Bepour, Moere
*** Tibor languages: Pamosu, Hember Avu, Mokati, Mawak, Kowaki
** Numugen languages: Usan, Karian, Yaben, Yarawata, Parawen, Ukuriguma
** Kaukombar languages: Maia, Mala, Miani, Maiani
** Gavak

### Pick (2017)

A quite similar internal classification was worked out independently by Pick (2017). Pick could not establish regular sound correspondences with Kobol–Pal (Omosan) or Amaimon (Mabulap), and thus leaves them out of the family.
* Northern Adelbert
** Kumil–Tibor (*t- > s, *p- > f, *ŋ > zero)
*** Tibor [*-n > zero, *a > e]
**** Mokati (Wanambre)
**** (*k- > h, *C- > [−voice]) Kowaki, Mawak, Pamosu, Hember Avu (Musar)
*** Kumil [*k- *t- > , *C- > [−voice], *-k > zero]: Bepour, Mauwake, Moere
** Kaukombar [*k- *ŋ *-n > zero]: Mala, Miani, Maiani, Maia
** Manep–Barem [*-ŋ > n, *-g > ŋ, *wV > u]
*** Manep (Malas)
*** Barem (Brem)
** Gabak (Dimir)
** Numugen (*ŋ > n, 6 languages)
** Amako–Waskia: Waskia, Korak
Pick notes that Barem and Malas share pronominal markers on the verbs 'to teach' and 'to show' that are unique to those two verbs.

## Proto-language

A phonological reconstruction of Proto-Northern Adelbert has been proposed by Pick (2020).

### Phonology

Pick (2020) reconstructs the phonemes of Proto-Northern Adelbert as:
| | labial | alveolar | palatal | velar |
| unvoiced stops | *p | *t | | *k |
| voiced stops | *b | *d | | *g |
| nasals | *m | *n | | *ŋ |
| fricatives | | *s | | |
| laterals | | *l | | |
| rhotics | | *r | | |
| glides | *w | | *y | |
Four vowels are reconstructed by Pick (2020): *a, *e, *i, *u. Although Northern Adelbert languages usually have the five vowels /a e i o u/, Pick (2020) does not consider *o to be reconstructable.

### Pronouns

The Proto-Northern Adelbert pronouns are:$^{:471}$
| | SG | PL |
| 1 | *ye | *yin |
| 2 | *ne | *nin |
| 3 | *we | *win |

### Lexicon

Selected lexical reconstructions from Pick (2020) are listed below.
Animal names :
| gloss | Proto-Northern Adelbert |
| ant | *mudir |
| ant sp. | *susur |
| bird | *muga(n/ŋ) |
| bird | *nebek |
| centipede | *wisir |
| chicken | *teteri |
| crayfish | *areker |
| crocodile | *tuar |
| eel | *melik |
| fly (insect) | *kuduruk |
| flying fox | *kepak |
| flying fox | *malabuŋ |
| frog | *idik |
| grasshopper | *takaw |
| grasshopper | *usa |
| hornbill | *baram |
| leech | *udir(a/e)m |
| louse | *gun |
| mosquito | *kasin |
| night bird | *mum |
| night bird of prey | *kilal |
| palm cockatoo | *k(a/e)kawin |
| pig | *buruk |
| pig, marsupial game animal | *wa |
| pitpit | *pia |
| snake | *duag |
| sunfly | *sisimur |
| Victoria crowned pigeon | *maur |
Plant names :
| gloss | Proto-Northern Adelbert |
| aibika greens | *iruar |
| aibika greens | *maiw |
| bamboo | *bik |
| banana | *kudi |
| betel pepper vine | *kupi |
| breadfruit | *kidar |
| coconut | *keta |
| firefly | *magam |
| mango | *pai |
| mushroom | *mutar |
| sago | *kamar |
| stinging nettle (Tok Pisin: salat) | *k(u/a)bum |
| sugarcane | *kai |
| taro | *mam |
| tree | *ŋam |
| tree sp. (Tok Pisin: mangas) | *teber |
| tulip tree | *kuari |
| type of greens | *muduru |
Material culture :
| gloss | Proto-Northern Adelbert |
| adze/axe | *ben |
| bow | *kemi |
| canoe | *wag |
| hand drum | *wag |
| house post | *bugaŋ |
| kundu drum | *kibem |
| loincloth | *siruw |
| platform, bed | *badim |
| signal drum, ironwood tree | *baner |
| spear | *uyaw |
| village | *kuaw |

### Comparisons

Below is a list of Proto-Northern Adelbert forms that are descended from Proto-Trans–New Guinea.$^{:470}$
| gloss | Proto-Northern Adelbert | Proto-Trans–New Guinea |
| arm, hand | *waben | *mbena |
| older brother | *bab | *[mb]amba |
| blood | *ked | *ke(nj,s)a |
| heart | *gemaŋ | *kamu |
| neck, nape | *kumaŋ | *kuma(n, ŋ) |
| mosquito | *kasin | *kasin |
| die | *um- | *kumV- |
| sleep | *in- | *kin(i,u)[m]- |
| know, hear, see | *ag- 'see' | *nVŋg- |
| NEG | *me (+verb) | *ma- (+verb) |
| water | *yag | *ok[V] |
| leaf | *tak | *sasak |