# Pashto phonology

Amongst the Iranian languages, the phonology of Pashto is of middle complexity, but its morphology is very complex.

## Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Pashto :
| | Labial | Labial | Dental/ alveolar | Dental/ alveolar | Post- alveolar | Post- alveolar | Retroflex | Retroflex | Palatal | Palatal | Velar | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| Nasal | | m | | n | | | | ɳ | | | | ŋ | | |
| Plosive | p | b | t | d | | | ʈ | ɖ | | | k | ɡ | (q) | |
| Affricate | | | t͡s | d͡z | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | | | | | | | | |
| Fricative | (f) | | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | ʂ | ʂ | ʐ | ʐ | x | ɣ | | h |
| Approximant | | | | l | | | ɽ | ɽ | | j | | w | | |
| Rhotic | | | | r | | | ɽ | ɽ | | | | | | |
[ɣwaʐ] Ear
[ʂkɑ.rɵ.ˈdə] was Visible
[a.ˈtaɳ] a Type of Dance
[ˈla.ɽa] Fog
[ˈɡɑ.ɖaɪ] Car, Vehicle
[ˈɡa.ʈa] a Rock; Profit, Benefit
The phonemes /q/, /f/ are only found in loanwords, and tend to be replaced by /k/, /p/ respectively. Some educated speakers may also have /ʔ, ʕ, ħ/ in Arabic loanwords.
* Voiceless stops and affricates /p, t, ʈ, t͡s, t͡ʃ, k/ are all unaspirated; they have slightly aspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable, almost like English.
* /ʂ, ʐ/ are heard as palatal fricatives [ç, ʝ] in the Northwestern dialect.
* /ɽ/ is a voiced retroflex flap most of the time, but tends to be a lateral flap [𝼈] at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap or approximant [ɻ] elsewhere.

### Dialects

Dialectal allophones represented by ښ and ږ. The retroflex variants [ʂ, ʐ] are used in the Southwest dialects whereas the post-alveolar variants [ʃ, ʒ] are used in Southeast Dialects. The palatal variants [ç, ʝ] are used in the Wardak and Central Ghilji dialects. In the North Eastern dialects ښ and ږ merge with the velar [x, g].

## Phonotactics

Pashto syllable structure can be summarized as follows; parentheses enclose optional components:
* (C$_1$ C$_2$ (C$_3$)) (S$_1$) V (S$_2$) (C$_4$ (C$_5$))
Pashto syllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by a semivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:
* Onset
** First consonant (C$_1$): Can be any consonant, including a liquid (/l, r/).
** Second consonant (C$_2$): Can be any consonant.
** Third consonant (C$_3$ ): Can be any consonant. (see #Consonant Clusters below)
* Nucleus
** Semivowel (S$_1$)
** Vowel (V)
** Semivowel (S$_2$)
* Coda
** First consonant (C$_4$): Can be any consonant
** Second consonant (C$_5$): Can be any consonant

### Consonant clusters

Pashto has a lot of word-initial consonant clusters in all dialects; some hundred such clusters occurs. However, there is no consonant gemination.
[to abuse]
[to translate]
[learned]
[honor]
[prayer]
| | Examples |
| Two Consonant Clusters | /tl/, /kl/, /bl/, /ɣl/, /lm/, /nm/, /lw/, /sw/, /br/, /tr/, /ɣr/, /pr/, /dr/, /wr/, /kɽ/, /mɽ/, /wɽ/ /xp/, /pʃ/, /pʂ/, /xr/, /zb/, /zɽ/, /ʒb/, /d͡zm/, /md͡z/, /t͡sk/, /sk/, /sp/, /ʃp/, /ʂk/, /xk/, /ʃk/, /kʃ/, /kx/, /kʂ/, /ml/, /gr/, /gm/ and /ʐm/ etc. |
| Three Consonant Clusters | /sxw/, /xwɽ/, /xwl/, /nɣw/ etc. |

### Examples

An edited list from the book Pashto Phonology by M.K. Khan:
| | IPA | Meaning | |
| V | /o/ | was [dialect] | و |
| VC | /as/ | horse | اس |
| VCC | /art/ | loose | ارت |
| CV | /tə/ | you | ته |
| CVC | /ɖer/ | many, very | ډېر |
| CVCC | /lund/ | wet | لوند |
| CCV | /mlɑ/ | back | ملا |
| CCVC | /klak/ | hard | کلک |
| CCVCC | /ʒwənd/ | life | ژوند |
| CCCV | /xwlə/ | mouth | خوله |
| CCCVC | /ndror/ | sister-in-law | ندرور |
| CCCVCC | /ʃxwand/ | chewing of food | شخوند |

## Vowels

Most dialects in Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs.
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i | | u |
| Mid | e | ə | o |
| Open | a | | ɑ |
* Tegey & Robson (1996) also include near-close vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/.

### Prehistory

There are many complexities on the development from Proto-Iranian into the modern Pashto vowel inventory (romanization will be used here):
* *a > ā /ɑ/ in a stressed closed syllable (lā́s < *jásta- "hand")
** ā > o before w (owə́ < *haftá) or if there is u or w in the next syllable (pox < *paxwá-); sometimes also in adjectives (corb < *čarpá)

## Diphthongs

| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | | | uɪ |
| Mid | | əɪ | oɪ |
| Open | aɪ, aw | | ɑi, ɑw |
Elfenbein notes that the long diphthongs [ɑi, ɑw] are always stressed, whilst the short diphthongs may or may not be stressed.
[xo.wən.ˈzaɪ]
[si.ˈləɪ]
[aw]
[t͡ʃɑɪ]
[njɑw]
[loɪ]
[duɪ]

### Orthography of diphthongs

| | Initial | Medial | Final |
| aɪ | ای | َيـ | َی |
| əɪ | | | ۍ and ئ |
| oɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی |
| uɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی |
| aw | او | َو | َو |
| ɑi | آي | اي | ای |
| ɑw | آو | او | او |

## Stress

Pashto has phonemic variable stress, unique amongst Iranian languages.
For instance, in verbs to distinguish aspect:
| Verb - Imperfective (mostly Final Stress) | Meaning | Verb - Perfective (Initial Stress) | Meaning |
| kenɑstə́ləm | I was sitting | kénɑstələm | I sat down |
| kenɑstə́m | I was sitting | kénɑstəm | I sat down |
| ba kenə́m | I shall be sitting | ba kénəm | I shall sit |

### Basic word stress

Stress is indicated by the IPA stress marker [ˈ].
In general, the last syllable is stressed if the word ends in a consonant and the penultimate syllable is stressed if the last syllable ends in a vowel.
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
| رنځور | /ran.ˈd͡zur/ | sick [adj. masc.] |
| رنځوره | /ran.ˈd͡zur.a/ | sick [adj. fem.] |
| کورونه | /ko.ˈru.na/ | houses [noun. masc. plural] |
| ښځو | /ˈʂə.d͡zo/ | women [noun. fem. plural. oblique.] |
| لاندې | /ˈlɑn.de/ | below [adverb, circumposition] |

#### Masculine Words ending in "ə"

These have final stress generally.
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
| تېره | /te.ˈrə/ | sharp [adjective] |
| لېوه | /le.ˈwə/ | wolf [noun] |

#### Feminine Words ending in "o"

These end in a stress /o/.
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
| بيزو | /bi.ˈzo/ | monkey |
| پيشو | /pi.ˈʃo/ | cat |
| ورشو | /war.ˈʃo/ | meadow, pasture |

#### Wordings ending in Aleph

Words ending in IPA /ɑ/ i.e. ا are stressed in the last syllable.
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
| اشنا | /aʃ.ˈnɑ/ | familiar [masc. noun] |
| رڼا | /ra.ˈɳɑ/ | light [fem. noun] |

### Exceptions

Word meanings also change upon stress.
| Word | IPA: following general stress pattern [penultimate syllable] | Meaning 1 | IPA: following exception stress pattern | Meaning 2 |
| جوړه | /ˈd͡ʒo.ɽa/ | well | /d͡ʒo.ˈɽa/ | pair |
| اسپه | /ˈas.pa/ | horse [mare] | /as.ˈpa/ | spotted fever |

## Intonation
### Questions

WH-Questions [who, where, when etc] follow a hat pattern of intonation: a rise in pitch followed by a fall in pitch.
    تاسو چېرته کار کوئ
    [ tā́so ↗čérta kār kawə́ɪ↘ ]
Yes/No-Questions end in a high intonation: a rise in pitch.
    غنم يې ورېبل ؟
    [ ğanə́m ye wә́rebəl↗ ]

### Contrastive focus

When a word is contrasted with another word it carries a low then high pitch accent, followed by a sharp fall in pitch accent.
    نه له د نه کشر يم
    [ na↘ lə ↗də nə kə́shər yə́m↘ ]

## Dialectal phonology
### Consonants

This diagram is based on Anna Boyle's division of the dialect variations on geographic regions:
| Dialect | ښ | ږ | څ | ځ | ژ |
| South Western Dialects e.g. Kandahar, Herat etc. | ʂ | ʐ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
| South Eastern Dialects e.g. Kasai Tribe, Quetta Region etc. | ʃ | ʒ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
| Middle Dialects - Waziri and Dzadrani | ɕ in Waziri ç in Dzadrani | ʑ in Waziri ʝ in Dzadrani | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
| North Western Dialects e.g. Wardak, Central Ghilzai | ç | ʝ | s | z | ʒ and z |
| North Eastern Dialects e.g. Yusapzai, Peshawar dialect etc. | x | ɡ | s | z | d͡ʒ |

#### Regional Variation

This diagram however does not factor in the regional variations within the broad geographic areas. Compare the following consonant and vowel differences amongst regions categorised as Northern dialects:
| | | Northern Dialects | Northern Dialects | Northern Dialects |
| | Meaning | Wardak | Jalalabad | Bati Kot |
| دوی | they | deɪ | ˈduwi | ˈduwi |
| راکړه | give [imperative of راکول] | ˈrɑ.ka | ˈrɑ.ka | ˈrɑ.kɽa |
| پوهېدل | to know [infinitive] | pi.je.ˈdəl | po.je.ˈdəl | po.ji.ˈdəl |
| شپږ | six | ʃpaʝ | ʃpag | ʃpiʒ |
| وريځ | cloud | wər.ˈjed͡z | wrez | wə.ˈred͡z |
| ښځه | woman | ˈçə.d͡za | ˈxə.za | |
| اوبه | water | o.ˈbə | u.ˈbə | o.ˈbə |
Or the difference in vowels and diphthongs in North Eastern Pashto:
| | Meaning | Swat | Peshawar |
| ودرېږه | stop [imperative of درېدل] | 'wə.dre.ga | ˈo.dre.ga |
| جنۍ | girl | d͡ʒi.ˈnəɪ | d͡ʒi.ˈnɛ |

#### Alveolo-palatal fricative

Rozi Khan Burki claims that the Ormuri alveolo-palatal fricative /ɕ/ and /ʑ/ may also be present in Waziri. But Pashto linguists such as Josef Elfenbein, Anna Boyle or Yousaf Khan Jazab have not noted this in Waziri Phonology.

### Vowels
#### Waziri vowels

| | Front | Front | Central | Back |
| | Unrounded | Rounded | Central | Back |
| Close | i | | | u |
| Mid | ɛ | ə | œ | ɔ |
| Near-Open | æ | | | |
| Open | a | | | ɒ |

##### The Vowel Shift

Corey Miller notes that the shift does not affect all words.
In Waziri dialect the [ɑ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ɔː] in Northern Waziri and [ɒː] in Southern Waziri.
| | Meaning | Standard Pashto | N.Wazirwola | S. Wazirwola |
| ماسته | yougurt | /mɑs.ˈtə/ | /mɔːs.ˈtə/ | /mɒːs.ˈtə/ |
| پاڼه | leaf | /pɑ.ˈɳa/ | /ˈpɔː.ɳjɛː/ | /ˈpɒː.ɳjɛː/ |
In Waziri dialect the stressed [o] in Standard Pashto becomes [œː] and [ɛː]. The [o] in Standard Pashto may also become [jɛ] or [wɛː].
| | Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola |
| لور | sickle | /lor/ | /lœːr/ |
| وړه | flour | /o.ˈɽə/ | /ɛː.ˈɽə/ |
| اوږه | shoulder | /o.ˈɡa/ | /jɛ.ˈʒa/ |
| اوس | now | /os/ | /wɛːs/ |
In Waziri dialect the stressed [u] in standard Pashto becomes [iː].
| | Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola |
| موږ | we | /muɡ/ | /miːʒ/ |
| نوم | navel | /num/ | /niːm/ |
When [u] in begins a word in standard Pashto can become [jiː] or [w[ɛ]]
| | Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola |
| اوم | raw | /um/ | /jiːm/ |
| اوږه | garlic | /ˈu.ɡa/ | /ˈjiː.ʒa/ |
| اوده | asleep | /u.ˈdə/ | /wɜ.ˈdə/ |
Elfenbein also notes the presence of the near-open vowel [æ].

#### Apridi vowels

Apridi has the additional close-mid central rounded vowel /ɵ/.

#### Diphthongs in dialects

The diphthongs varies according to dialect.
| Standard Pronunciation | Apridi | Yusupzai | Waziri | Mohmand | Baniswola/Bannuchi | Wanetsi |
| aɪ | ʌɪ ʌː | e | aɪ | | ɑ | a |
| ˈaɪ | ˈaɪ | ˈe | | æɪ | ˈɑːi | ˈa |
| ˈəɪ | ˈije | ˈəɪ | ˈəɪ ˈe | | ˈije | ˈi |
| oɪ | waɪ | we | oːi œːi | | eːi | |
| uɪ | | ui, wi | ˈojə | | i | |
| aw | | ao | | | ow, aːw | |
| ɑi | | ɑe | | | ˈɑːi | |
| ɑw | | ɑo | | | oːw | |
Yousaf Khan Jazab notes that the diphthong /əɪ/ becomes /oi/ in the Khattak Dialect in the verbal suffix /ئ/, but it remains as the diphthong /əɪ/ in the nominal/adjectival /ۍ/ example: مړۍ /ma.ˈɽəɪ/ "meal".

### Nasalisation of vowels

As noted by Yousaf Khan Jazab, the Marwat dialect and the Bansiwola dialect have nasalised vowels also. It is also noted in the Waṇetsi/Tarin dialect.
These are indicated by the diactric mark / ̃ /.
| Standard Pronunciation | Marwat | Meaning |
| بوی buɪ | بویں buĩ | Smell |