OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Logic as a Positive Science

Logic as a Positive Science is one of the major works of Italian Marxist philosopher Galvano Della Volpe. It was first published in 1950 as Logica come Scienza positiva. A second edition appeared in 1956 and according to translator, Jon Rothschild, Della Volpe was reportedly working on a third edition at the time of his death in 1968 which was never completed. The definitive, enlarged edition was published posthumously in 1969 under the slightly different title Logica Come Scienza Storica. Jon Rothschild translated the book into English for New Left Books (now Verso), and was first published by them as Logic as a Positive Science in 1980.

## Summary

The book's thesis is that the progress made in philosophy has come out of struggles against apriorist idealism. Della Volpe provides several case studies of such critiques of apriorism including Plato's critique of Parmenides, Aristotle's critique of Plato, Galileo's critique of scholastic science, Kant's critique of Leibniz's rationalism, and the young Marx's critique of Hegelian idealism.
Della Volpe used those case studies in order to defend the thesis that Marxism is a science to the extent that it relies upon a Galilean methodology, not unlike the one that he saw as underlying the natural sciences. For Della Volpe, Capital is the best exemplification of this moral Galileanism in practice, with Marx exploding the apriorist reasonings of the classical economists, which involved reliance upon 'speculative' or 'forced' abstractions that implied the existence of natural and eternal economic laws. Instead, Marx followed a methodology that relied upon determinate abstractions. Della Volpe analyzed Marx's methodology as one which followed the pattern of Concrete-Abstract-Concrete (C-A-C), which is the pattern or circle of scientific materialist dialectics (as opposed to Hegelian dialectics which, according to Della Volpe, follows the circle of Abstract-Concrete-Abstract).
In developing this analysis of Marx, Della Volpe advanced an understanding of the logic of scientific verification that was not unlike the one that Karl Popper presented in his Logic of Scientific Discovery. However, it would seem that Della Volpe did not rely upon Popper in developing his analysis but instead relied on such writers as Galileo, Lord Bacon, Claude Bernard, John Dewey, and Friedrich Engels. Whereas, Popper was concerned in The Logic of Scientific Discovery with providing solutions to the demarcation problem (i.e. rules for distinguishing science from non-science) and the induction problem, Della Volpe was concerned mainly with demonstrating that the "moral sciences" follow the same logic as the natural or positive sciences, and with showing that Marx had likewise embraced what Della Volpe called a "moral Galileanism." By implication, this could be taken as rebutting Popper's thesis that Marxism is not scientific.
# Eritrea at the 2022 Winter Olympics

Eritrea competed at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, China. The 2022 Winter Olympics were held from 4 to 20 February 2022.
Eritrea's team consisted of one male alpine skier. Alpine skier Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda as the only athlete from the country, carried the country's flag during the opening and closing ceremonies.

## Competitors

The following is the list of number of competitors at the Games per sport/discipline.
| Sport | Men | Women | Total |
| Alpine skiing | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| Total | 1 | 0 | 1 |

## Alpine skiing

By meeting the basic qualification standards, Eritrea qualified male alpine skier, Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda. Abeda competed in one event, the men's giant slalom, where he had a combined two run total for a time of 2:40.45, placing him 39th overall out of 87 skiers. This improved his result by 22 spots from 2018.
| Athlete | Event | Run 1 | Run 1 | Run 2 | Run 2 | Total | Total |
| Athlete | Event | Time | Rank | Time | Rank | Time | Rank |
| Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda | Men's giant slalom | 1:17.95 | 46 | 1:22.50 | 41 | 2:40.45 | 39 |
# 1900 Liverpool School Board election

Elections to the Liverpool School Board were held on Friday 16 November 1900. These were held every three years, when all fifteen board members were elected. There were nineteen candidates for the fifteen board member positions.
Each voter had fifteen votes to cast.
After the elections, the composition of the school board was:
| Allegiance | Members | ± | Votes |
| Church of England | 6 | -2 | 174,523 |
| Catholic | 4 | 0 | 199,688 |
| Non-Sectarian | 4 | 0 | 133,603 |
| Protestant | 1 | 0 | 107,063 |
| Labour | 0 | | 20,690 |
| Independent Church of England | 0 | | 18,735 |
| Independent Non-Sectarian | 0 | | 10,967 |
| Total Votes cast | | | 665,269 |
| Electorate | | | 105,201 |
| Turnout | | | 42% |
* - Retiring board member seeking re-election
Elected
| Allegiance | Name | Votes |
| Protestant | George Wise | 107,063 |
| Non-sectarian | Miss Melly * | 52,909 |
| Catholic | Michael Fitzpatrick * | 50,458 |
| Catholic | Dr. Sparrow * | 50,280 |
| Catholic | J. R. Yates | 49,809 |
| Catholic | C. McArdle * | 49,141 |
| Non-sectarian | J. C Stitt | 45,280 |
| Non-sectarian | W. Evans * | 39,847 |
| Church of England | Rev. Canon Lester * | 36,427 |
| Non-sectarian | R. G. Hough * | 35,414 |
| Church of England | J. H. Goodyear * | 34,044 |
| Church of England | Rev. W. J. Adams | 33,275 |
| Church of England | Dr. H. A. Clarke | 32,801 |
| Church of England | J. L. Bailey | 29,124 |
| Church of England | Rev. Geo. Howell * | 24,309 |
Not Elected
| Church of England | N. Bewley * | 20,970 |
| Labour | Samuel Reeves | 20,690 |
| Independent Church of England | Rev. J. Bell-Cox * | 18,735 |
| Independent Non-Sectarian | T. C. Ryley * | 10,967 |
# Melrose Road Bridge

The Melrose Road Bridge is a historic bridge at the western end of Melrose Road in East Windsor, Connecticut. Built in 1888, it is one of a small number of surviving 19th-century lenticular pony truss bridges in the state. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. It was closed for many years, and lacked stringers and decking. In 2017, the town received an $85,000 state grant to add a new pedestrian deck between the historic trusses and to construct connecting trails.

## Description and history

The Melrose Road Bridge is located in a rural area of northeastern East Windsor, at the western end of Melrose Road, where it would otherwise cross the Scantic River. This portion of the river is now part of Scantic River State Park. The bridge now consists of a wrought iron lenticular truss structure, spanning the river and mounted on brownstone abutments. The truss elements are joined by pins. The bridge measures 63 feet (19 m) long and 13 feet (4.0 m) wide, and would be capable of carrying one lane of traffic if rehabilitated. Guardrails have been welded across each of the truss's ends to impede access to the structure, which lacks any sort of decking.
The truss was built in 1888 by the Berlin Iron Bridge Company, one of New England's leading manufacturers of iron bridge trusses of the late 19th century. The truss was purchased by the town for $750, and was assembled and mounted by George Phelps, a local contractor, for $1484. Other contractors were paid $484. At the time of its listing on the National Register in 1999, it was one of only 15 lenticular trusses remaining in the state.
# Rubidium ozonide

Rubidium ozonide is an oxygen rich compound of rubidium. It is an ozonide, meaning it contains the ozonide anion (O$_3$$^−$).
It can be created by reacting rubidium superoxide (RbO$_2$) with ozone (O$_3$) in a liquid ammonia solution.
    RbO$_2$ + O$_3$ → RbO$_3$ + O$_2$
The chemical forms in two crystal structures, the low temperature α-RbO$_3$ (P2$_1$), and β-RbO$_3$ (P2$_1$/c) Detailed structural analysis finds the ozonide anions are significantly off-center from the surrounding rubidium atoms.
Since ozonide anion is magnetic, electron paramagnetic resonance measurements of rubidium ozonide have determined the g-values of the ozonide anion.
# Mount Saramati

Saramati (Burmese: စာရာမေတိတောင်; IPA:) is a peak rising above the surrounding peaks at the mountainous border of the Indian state of Nagaland and the Naga Self-Administered Zone of the Sagaing Region of Myanmar. It is located near the village of Thanamir in the Kiphire District of Nagaland.

## Geography

It has a height of 3,826 metres (12,552 ft) and a prominence of 2,885 metres (9,465 ft). Saramati is one of the ultra-prominent peaks of Southeast Asia. It forms a natural boundary between India and Myanmar.
# Khao Rom

Khao Rom (Thai: เขาร่ม) is a 1,351-metre-high (4,432 ft) mountain in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand. It is the highest peak of the Sankamphaeng Range, between eastern Thailand and Isan.

## History

Khao Rom is also known as Khao Khiao (เขาเขียว), also spelt Khao Khieo, and was known as "Green Hill" during the Vietnam War. At that time there was a US military Air Defense Radar Station of the 621 TCS Tactical Control Squadron, Khao Khieo RTAB TH "Dressy Lady", at the top of the mountain which is roughly midway between Bangkok and Korat. This peak should not be confused with other mountains in Thailand having the name Khao Khiao, including one in the same range.

## Hiking

This mountain is surrounded by forests and, like a great portion of the Sankamphaeng Range, it is part of the Khao Yai National Park area. The former US radar station is now run by the Royal Thai Armed Forces and is guarded by the military. Although the highest point of the mountain is not accessible to the public, there is a viewpoint near the entrance with beautiful views over the surrounding landscape on clear days.
Land leeches are common in the bushy undergrowth and under the leaves of low branches close to narrow forest paths.

## Climate

Climate data for Khao Rom (Khao Khiao), elevation 1,292 m (4,239 ft), (1993–2022) :
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 23.3 (73.9) | 24.2 (75.6) | 25.6 (78.1) | 25.9 (78.6) | 25.4 (77.7) | 24.2 (75.6) | 23.5 (74.3) | 23.1 (73.6) | 23.5 (74.3) | 23.7 (74.7) | 23.7 (74.7) | 22.5 (72.5) | 24.0 (75.3) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.7 (65.7) | 19.8 (67.6) | 21.5 (70.7) | 21.3 (70.3) | 21.7 (71.1) | 21.1 (70.0) | 20.7 (69.3) | 20.3 (68.5) | 20.3 (68.5) | 19.8 (67.6) | 19.6 (67.3) | 17.8 (64.0) | 20.2 (68.4) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 15.4 (59.7) | 16.0 (60.8) | 18.0 (64.4) | 18.5 (65.3) | 19.0 (66.2) | 18.6 (65.5) | 18.3 (64.9) | 18.4 (65.1) | 18.3 (64.9) | 17.7 (63.9) | 16.8 (62.2) | 14.7 (58.5) | 17.5 (63.5) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 32.9 (1.30) | 66.0 (2.60) | 80.2 (3.16) | 144.6 (5.69) | 305.3 (12.02) | 467.8 (18.42) | 529.3 (20.84) | 848.4 (33.40) | 582.7 (22.94) | 343.9 (13.54) | 41.6 (1.64) | 20.6 (0.81) | 3,463.3 (136.36) |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 77 | 76 | 85 | 87 | 91 | 94 | 95 | 96 | 95 | 91 | 85 | 80 | 88 |
| Source: Soil Resources Survey and Research Division ||||||||||||||
# Mekongga Mountains

The Mekongga Mountains (Pegunungan Mekongga, Bingkoka Mountains) are a range of mountains on the island of Sulawesi (Celebes), in Indonesia. Running north-west–southeast, on the western side of the southeast peninsula of the island, they are parallel to and west of the Tanggeasinua Range and lie in the province of Southeast Sulawesi. The mountain, Gunung Mekongga, is the highest point at 2,650 metres (8,694 ft).
# Mount Kapalatmada

Mount Kapalatmada is a mountain in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. At an elevation of 2,700 metres (8,858 ft) above sea level, it is the highest point on the Indonesian island of Buru.
# Sangpang Bum

Sangpang Bum is one of the highest mountains of the Northern Triangle of Burma. It is located in the Sagaing Region, Burma.
With a height of 2,692 m and a prominence of 1,655 m, Sangpang Bum is one of the ultra prominent peaks of Southeast Asia.
# Mali i Thatë

Mali i Thatë (Macedonian: Сува Гора, Suva Gora; Aromanian: Malethate, Malethata) is a mountain in southeast Albania; with a part of it being in the southwest of North Macedonia (known with the name Galičica and declared a National Park) with the highest altitude of 2287 meters.

## Geography

It borders Lake Prespa in the east, Lake Ohrid in northwest and overlooks the city of Pogradec to the west. It stretches 25 km from north to south and is 8 km wide in its central part. Mali i Thatë highest peak is Pllaja e Pusit (meaning "Well's plateau") and it reaches an altitude of 2,287 m (7,503 ft) above sea level. It is found within Albania, close to the Macedonian border. From this high peak, among several mountains of Albania, both Ohrid Lake and Prespa Lake can be seen as well as the third highest peak in North Macedonia, Baba Mountain or Pelister Mountain (2601 m). The mountain has an anticlinal shape and is almost completely composed of mesozoic limestone formations. Mali i Thatë has craggy slopes (especially the western face), whereas its crest is almost flat but full of karstic cavities.
The vegetation is primarily made up of alpine meadows, whereas in the eastern face beech, oak and bush forests are found. Near the Albanian village of Goricë the soil is rich of iron bauxite and chalk minerals. During the Albanian Revolt of 1911 Spiro Bellkameni's band defeated an Ottoman contingent in Mali i Thatë.
# Monte Greco

Monte Greco is a mountain in the province of L'Aquila in the Abruzzo region of Italy. It is in the southern part of the Appennino Abruzzese mountain chain. The mountain is north of the Sangro river and Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo, Lazio e Molise.
# Jbel Bou Naceur

Mount Bou Nasser or Jbel Bou Naceur is a mountain in Sefrou Province, Fès-Meknès, Morocco. Its altitude is 3,340 meters.

## Geography

It is the highest peak in the Middle Atlas, located near Tirnest to the south and Tinesmet to the north. A high peak covered by cedar forests, the Bou Nasser summit is one of the favourite destinations for hikers in the region of the Atlas Mountains.
# Mount Talakmau

Talakmau (also known as Talamau or Ophir) is a volcano in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Its elevation is 2,919 m (9,577 ft).
# İlandağ

İlandağ is a mountain peak of the Lesser Caucasus range, located in the Julfa District of Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan. It has an elevation of 2,415 metres (7,923 ft) above sea level, which also is visible from Nakhchivan City. According to legend, the cleft in its summit was formed by the keel of Noah's Ark as the floodwaters abated.
# Mount Arfak

Mount Arfak is the highest point in the province of West Papua. It is located on north-east side of the Bird's Head Peninsula. It is a popular hiking area and is the highest peak of the Arfak Mountains. From the summit, Manokwari can be seen. The summit of Mt. Arfak is temperate and dry with very hot, dry summer temperatures that average below 95 °F (35 °C) and mild, humid winter temperatures that average above 38 °F (3 °C). During the winter months, the mountain's summit receives frost usually and sometimes can get to 33 °F (0 °C) every now and then. Sometimes snow can fall on the summit, but not every year. Average rain amount per year is about 45 inches (1150 mm). The mountain is part of the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve, a 683-square-kilometer (264 sq mi) protected area that protects parts of the Vogelkop montane rain forests ecoregion. The mountain is also the highest point in the Manokwari metropolitan area.

## Gallery

* View from the Doreri Bay near Manokwari.
* Closer view of the peak on the north-west side.
* View of Pegunungan Arfak from the Cenderawasih Bay.
* View of the mountain from a rocky beach near Manokwari
# Mount Guna

Mount Guna (Amharic: ጉና ተራራ, Guna Terara) is a mountain and shield volcano located near the cities of Nefas Mewcha and Debre Tabor, in the northern Amhara Region of Ethiopia. It is the highest point in the South Gondar Zone, with an elevation of 4,120 metres (13,517 ft) above sea level.
Mount Guna forms part of the divide between the drainage basins of the Abay and the Tekezé rivers. It is the origin of the Gumara, Rib, and other rivers, which flow into Lake Tana and Yikalo, Mebela, Goleye and other rivers, which flow into the Tekezé river.
# Mount Rendu

Mount Rendu (67°26′S 67°4′W﻿ / ﻿67.433°S 67.067°W﻿ / -67.433; -67.067) is a mountain between Reid Glacier and Heim Glacier on Arrowsmith Peninsula in Graham Land. Mapped by Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS) from surveys and air photos, 1948–59. Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee (UK-APC) for Louis Rendu (1789–1859), French Bishop and scientist, author of Theorie des glaciers de la Savoie, an important book on the mechanism of glacier flow.
Bauer Buttress is a projecting rock buttress on the northeast side of Mount Rendu. It was named by UK-APC following geological work by the British Antarctic Survey, 1980–81, after Albert Bauer, French engineer and glaciologist.
# Geureudong

Geureudong or Bur ni Geureudong or Bur ni Telong is a stratovolcanic complex in northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The official name of the whole complex is confusing between the two adjacent volcanoes: Bur ni Geureudong and Bur ni Telong. Two other volcanic cones are Salah Nama and Pepanji, and there are small sediment hills. Bur ni Geureudong has been eroded since the Pleistocene age, but has solfatara and hot springs on its flanks. Bur ni Telong is located in the south of Bur ni Geureudong. Bur ni Telong has active crater that lava flows are exposed in the southern flank.
# Loma Gajo en Medio

Loma Gajo en Medio is a mountain located in San Juan, Dominican Republic. It is an ultra-prominent peak. It has an elevation of 2,279 m (7,477 ft).
# Mount Karakuni

Karakunidake (韓国岳) or Mount Karakuni (1,700m) is a volcano in Kagoshima and Miyazaki Prefectures, Japan. It is part of Kirishima-Yaku National Park.

## Name

Karakunidake was named as such from two accounts before the Edo period: the first of which referred to the mountain's barren surface, and the second which claimed that climbers can see the distant Korean Peninsula across the sea.
Some maps erroneously spell its name as "唐国岳" (Karakunidake), with the kanji "唐" in place of "韓".
# Mount Lamongan

Mount Lamongan or Mount Lemongan is a small stratovolcano located between the massif Tengger caldera complex and Iyang-Argapura volcano complex in East Java, Indonesia. The volcano is surrounded by maars and cinder cones. The volcano's high point is locally named as Gunung Tarub. Lake-filled maars including Ranu Pakis, Ranu Klakah and Ranu Bedali, located on the eastern and western flanks. The northern flanks are dominated by dry maars. The Green Army organization, led by Aak Abdullah al-Kudus, has been working to reforest the mountain.
# Al Ghayl district

Al Ghayl District (Arabic: مديرية الغيل) is a district of the Al Jawf Governorate, Yemen. As of 2003, the district had a population of 10,436 people.
# II Queen Elisabeth Music Competition

The second edition of the Queen Elisabeth Music Competition, then known as Eugène Ysaÿe Competition, took place in Brussels from May 15 - May 31, 1938, and was the inaugural edition of its piano competition. It was won by Emil Gilels, whose sister Elizabeth had been awarded the 6th prize the previous year.
Jean Absil composed his Piano Concerto op.30 for the competition.
A third edition devoted to orchestral conducting was scheduled for the following year, but due to the outbreak of World War II the competition's third edition didn't take place until 1951. Eventually, no conducting competition has taken place to date.

## Palmares

| | Winner |
| 1st Prize | Emil Gilels |
| 2nd Prize | Mary Johnstone (Moura Lympany) |
| 3rd Prize | Jakov Flier |
| 4th Prize | Lance Dossor |
| 5th Prize | Nivea Marino-Bellini |
| 6th Prize | Robert Riefling |
| 7th Prize | Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli |
| 8th Prize | André Dumortier |
| 9th Prize | Rose Schmidt |
| 10th Prize | Monique Yver de la Bruchollerie |
| 11th Prize | Marcella Barzetti |
| 12th prize | Colette Gaveau |

### Other competitors

* Nikita Magaloff
* Maurice Ohana

## Jury

* Vytautas Bacevicius
* Samuil Feinberg
* Arthur Bliss
* Robert Casadesus
* Marcel Ciampi
* Jean Doyen
* Arne van Erpekum Sem
* Paul Frenkel
* Émile Frey
* Ignaz Friedman
* Walter Gieseking
* Siegfried Grundeis
* Bernard Heinze
* Léon Jongen
* Raoul Koczalski
* Artur Lemba
* Marcel Maas
* Carlo Van Neste
* Nikolay Orlov
* Pierre Petrides
* Jekabs Poruks
* Arthur Rubinstein
* Walter Rummel
* Emil von Sauer
* Victor Schiøler
* Andrei Stoyanov
* Olof Wibergh
# John Albert Gibert M.D. House

John Albert Gibert M.D. House is a historic home located near McCormick in McCormick County, South Carolina. It was built about 1867, and is a two-story, frame, I-house embellished with Greek Revival style decorative elements. It features a full-height portico supported by massive Doric order masonry columns. Also on the property is a one-story frame outbuilding (c. 1900), originally a single dwelling, but which later served as a general store.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993.
# Queenie Rynjah

Queenie Madaline Rynjah (née Dunn) is a social worker and educationist from Indian state of Meghalaya. She was awarded the Padma Shri award by Government of India in 2004.

## Early life

Rynjah was born to George Dunn and Mied Rangard on 23 January 1919.
# Bart Al Anan District

Bart Al Anan District is a district of the Al Jawf Governorate, Yemen. As of 2003, the district had a population of 59,463 inhabitants.
# Otto Valstad

Otto Valstad (11 December 1862 – 20 June 1950) was a Norwegian educator, painter, book illustrator and children's writer.

## Biography

He was born at Asker in Akershus, Norway. He was the son of Andreas Olsen Valstad (1828–1911) and Lisa Johansdatter Solstad (1836–1906). Valstad was an elementary school teacher until 1899. From the 1880s, he painted, especially landscapes, portraits and popular genres. He was a student at the Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry under Johan Nordhagen and later briefly attended Académie Julian in Paris during 1897.
In 1893, he married novelist Mathilde Georgine "Tilla" Valstad (1871–1957). Otto and Tilla Valstad were avid art collectors and their home in Hvalstad became a cultural centre. In 1949, they willed their property to Asker municipality. His works are displayed at Asker Museum together with an extensive collection of art and cultural-historical objects.
Among his books are Juletræet from 1891, Smaakarer from 1910, Ola Enfoldig from 1916 and Ola Mangfoldig from 1923. He is represented in the National Gallery of Norway with the portrait Fru Lina Brun from 1901.