# Dagaare language

Dagaare is the language of the Dagaaba people of Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Ivory Coast. It has been described as a dialect continuum that also includes Waale and Birifor. Dagaare language varies in dialect stemming from other family languages including: Dagbane, Waale, Mabia, Gurene, Mampruli, Kusaal, Buli, Niger-Congo, and many other sub languages resulting in around 1.3 million Dagaare speakers. Throughout the regions of native Dagaare speakers the dialect comes from Northern, Central, Western, and Southern areas referring to the language differently. Burkina Faso refers to Dagaare as Dagara and Birifor to natives in the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire. The native tongue is still universally known as Dagaare. Amongst the different dialects, the standard for Dagaare is derived from the Central region's dialect. Southern Dagaare (or Waale) also stems from the Dagaare language and is known to be commonly spoken in Wa and Kaleo.
Ethnologue divides Dagaare into three languages:
* Southern/Central Dagaare language, which is spoken mainly in Ghana
* Northern Dagara language, which is spoken mainly in Burkina Faso
* Dagaari Dioula, which is spoken mainly in Burkina Faso, and has significant influence from the genetically unrelated Dioula languageDistribution of Dagaree Speakers

## Orthography

Dagara alphabet (Burkina Faso) :
| Uppercase |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A | B | Ɓ | C | D | E | Ɛ | F | G | Gb | H | ʼH | I | Ɩ | J | K | Kp | L | ʼL | M | N | Ny | Ŋ | Ŋm | O | Ɔ | P | R | S | T | U | Ʋ | V | W | ʼW | Y | Ƴ | Z |
| Lowercase |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| a | b | ɓ | c | d | e | ɛ | f | g | gb | h | ʼh | i | ɩ | j | k | kp | l | ʼl | m | n | ny | ŋ | ŋm | o | ɔ | p | r | s | t | u | ʋ | v | w | ʼw | y | ƴ | z |
Tones are indicated using diacritics:
* the grave accent for the low tone: ⟨à è ɛ̀ ì ɩ̀ ò ɔ̀ ù ʋ̀⟩ ;
* the acute accent for the high tone: ⟨á é ɛ́ í ɩ́ ó ɔ́ ú ʋ́⟩ ;
* and no accent for the middle tone.
Nasalization is indicated using the tilde. A nasalized vowel in high or low tone is surmounted by the tilde under the accent.
Dagaare alphabet (Ghana) :
| Uppercase ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A | B | D | E | Ɛ | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | Ɔ | P | R | S | T | U | V | W | Y | Z |
| Lowercase ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| a | b | d | e | ɛ | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | ɔ | p | r | s | t | u | v | w | y | z |

## Phonology

The consonant and vowel sounds in the Dagaare languages:

### Vowels

| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i | | u |
| Near-close | ɪ | | ʊ |
| Close-mid | e | | o |
| Open-mid | ɛ | | ɔ |
| Open | | a | |

### Consonants

| | | Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labio- velar | Glottal |
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiceless | p | t | t͡ɕ | k | k͡p | ʔ |
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiced | b | d | d͡ʑ | ɡ | ɡ͡b | |
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | | | | h |
| Fricative | voiced | v | z | | | | |
| Fricative | glottalized | | | | | | ˀh |
| Nasal | plain | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | ŋ͡m | |
| Nasal | glottalized | ˀm | | | | | |
| Lateral | plain | | l | | | | |
| Lateral | glottalized | | ˀl | | | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | | | j | | w | |
Allophones of /d, ɡ/ include [r, ɣ~ɡ̆].
Ghanaian Dagaare has twenty-five consonants and two glides (semi-vowels). Glottalized /ˀh/, /ˀl/, and /ˀm/ occur in the northern dialect of Burkina Faso.

## Grammar
### Tone

Dagaare is a tonal language with a two-level tone system with a downstep high tone. The Dagaare tone has two basic functions, namely a lexical and a grammatical function. Its lexical function concerns differences in lexical semantics, such that differing in tone but not in morphosyntactic form triggers different semantics. Its grammatical function is responsible for cases in which different tone markings on a segment result in different semantics of that expression.

#### Lexical function

Bá
Bá
„to go very fast“
Bà
Bà
„to fix the ground“

#### Grammatical function

Ò
3.SG
kùŋ
NEG.FUT
gáá.
come.PERF
Ò kùŋ gáá.
3.SG NEG.FUT come.PERF
„S/he will not go.“ (negative declarative sentence)
Ò
3.SG
kúŋ
NEG.HORT
gáá.
come.PERF
Ò kúŋ gáá.
3.SG NEG.HORT come.PERF
„S/he should not go.“ (negative hortative sentence)

### Noun class system

| Noun Class | Singular Form | Noun Stem | Plural Form |
| Class I | [-Vocal] | | [-bɔ'] |
| (+human cl.) | pɔ'ɤɔ' ('woman') | pɔ'g- | pɔ'ɤíbɔ' ('women') |
| Class II | [-Vocal] | | [-rí] |
| IIa | [-é] | | [-rí] |
| | bìé ('child') | bì- | bíírí ('children') |
| IIb | [-ó] | | [-rí] |
| | dùó ('pig') | dò- | dòrí ('pigs') |
| IIc | [-í] | | [-rí] |
| | síɤí ('hut') | síg- | síɤrí ('huts') |
| Class III | [-í] | | [-Vocal] |
| IIIa | [-í] | | [-é] |
| | gyìlí ('xylophone') | gyìl- | gyìlé ('xylophones') |
| IIIb | [-í] | | [-ɔ'] |
| | pɔ'lí ('path') | pɔ'- | pɔ'lɔ' ('paths') |
| IIIc | [-í] | | [-á] |
| | váálí ('rubbish') | váál- | váálá ('rubbish') |
| Class IV | [-rʊʊ] | | [-rì] |
| | pírʊʊ ('sheep') | pí- | píírì ('sheep') |
| Class V | [-∅] | | [-rí] |
| | túú ('forest') | tùù- | túúrí ('forest') |
| Class VI | [-rì] | | [-Vocal] |
| VIa | [-rì] | | [-è] |
| | bírì ('seed') | bí- | bíè ('seeds') |
| VIb | [-rí] | | [-ó] |
| | tóórí ('ear') | tóó- | tòbó ('ears') |
| VIc | [-rí] | | [-á] |
| | yàgrí ('cheek') | yàg- | yàɤá ('cheeks') |
| Class VII | Nasal+Vocal | | Nasal+Vocal |
| VIIa | [-ní] | | [-mà] |
| | gání ('book') | gán- | gámà ('books') |
| VIIb | [-mʊ] | | [-má] |
| | táamʊ ('bow') | tàn- | támá ('bows') |
| VIIc | [-ŋé] | | [-ní] |
| | bìŋé ('pen') | bìŋ- | bìnní ('pens') |
| VIId | [-ŋó] | | [-ní] |
| | bòŋó ('donkey') | bòŋ- | bònní ('donkeys') |
| VIIe | [-∅] | | [-nɛɛ] |
| -count plurals | dɑ̃ɑ̃' ('pito') | dɑ̃ɑ̃'- | dɑ̃ɑ̃'nɛɛ ('pito') |
| Class VIII | [-áá] | | [-í] |
| | gbíŋgbíláá ('drying spot') | gbígbíl- | gbíŋgbíllí ('drying spots') |
| Class IX | [-ù] | | (no plural) |
| (derived n.) | Dúóù ('climbing') | dó- | |
| Class X | (no singular) | | [-úŋ] |
| | | bùùl- | búúlúŋ ('porridge') |

### Pronouns

Source:

#### Personal pronouns

In Dagaare, personal pronouns do not exhibit gender differences. For subject pronouns, there is a distinction between strong and weak personal pronouns. Moreover, there is a distinction between human and non-human forms for third person plural pronouns.
| | Subject (Nom) | | Object (Acc) |
| | Weak Form | Strong Form | |
| (human) | | | |
| 1st SG | n | maa | ma |
| 2nd SG | fo | foo | fo |
| 3rd SG | o | onɔ | o |
| 1st PL | te | tenee | te |
| 2nd PL | yɛ | yɛnee | yɛ |
| 3rd PL | ba | bana | ba |
| (non-human) | | | |
| 3rd PL | a | ana | a |

#### Reflexive pronouns

Reflexivity is expressed by the words mengɛ or mengɛ tɔr in singular and menne or menne tɔr in plural after any personal pronouns.
| Weak reflexive pronouns | Strong reflexive pronouns |
| n mengɛ (tɔr) ('myself') | maa mengɛ ('me, myself') |
| fo mengɛ (tɔr) ('yourself') | foo mengɛ ('you, yourself') |
| o mengɛ (tɔr) ('him-/herself') | onɔ mengɛ ('s/he, him-/herself') |
| te menne (tɔr) ('ourselves') | tenee menne ('we, ourselves') |
| yɛ menne (tɔr) ('yourselves') | yɛnee menne ('you, yourselves') |
| ba menne (tɔr) ('themselves') | bana menne ('they, themselves') |
| a menne (tɔr) ('themselves', non-human) | ana menne ('they, themselves', non-human) |

#### Reciprocal pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns in Dagaare consist of the forms tɔ, tɔ soba, taa and taaba. The most common form is taa.
Te
we
nɔnɔ
love
lá
FOC
taa.
RECP
Te nɔnɔ lá taa.
we love FOC RECP
„We love each other / one another.“

#### Relative pronouns

There is no distinction between human and non-human relative pronouns in Dagaare. For both the relative pronoun is nang.
A
DEF
dɔɔ
man
na
COMP
nang
who
wa.
come.PERF
A dɔɔ na nang wa.
DEF man COMP who come.PERF
„The man who came.“
A
DEF
gane
book
na
COMP
nang
which
le.
fall.PERF
A gane na nang le.
DEF book COMP which fall.PERF
„The book that fell down.“

#### Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are formed by a root like [bo-] ('what, which') which combines with a suffix. Interrogative pronoun roots in Dagaare include also [yeŋ-] ('where'), [ʔaŋ-] ('who') and [wʊla-] ('how many').
| Dagaare | English |
| bong, boluu | what |
| boo | which one, which of them |
| baboo, babobo | which of them (human) |
| aboo, abobo | which of them (non-human) |
| ang | who (human, singular) |
| ang mine | who (human, plural) |

#### Possessive pronouns

Possession is expressed by the words toɔr and den in singular and deme in plural, meaning "own", combined with any personal pronoun.
| Dagaare | English |
| n toɔr, den, deme | mine, my own |
| fo toɔr, den, deme | yours, your own |
| o toɔr, den, deme | his/hers, his/her own |
| te toɔr, den, deme | ours, our own |
| yɛ toɔr, den, deme | yours, your own |
| ba toɔr, den, deme | theirs, their own (human) |
| a toɔr, den, deme | theirs, their own (non-human) |

#### Demonstrative pronouns

Similarly to the personal pronouns, there is a distinction between human and non-human forms for the third person plural pronouns.
| Dagaare | English |
| nyɛ | this (one) |
| onɔng | that (one) |
| banang | those (ones) (human) |
| anang | those (ones) (non-human) |
| lɛ | like that (one) |
| nyɛɛ | like this (one) |

#### Indefinite pronouns

Dagaare does not seem to have indefinite pronouns and rather combines a noun like "person" or "body" with the element kang in order to express indefinites like "somebody" or "someone".
Neɛ
person
kang
INDEF
wa-ɛ
come-PERF
lá.
FOC
Neɛ kang wa-ɛ lá.
person INDEF come-PERF FOC
„Someone has come.“

## Syntax
### Word order

The canonical word order of Dagaare is SVO (subject-verb-object). This can be seen in the following examples showing an intransitive clause, a transitive clause including an adverb and a ditransitive clause.
Báyúó
Bayuo
dà
PST
tòng
work
lá
FOC
tómɔ
work
(zààméng).
yesterday
Báyúó dà tòng lá tómɔ (zààméng).
Bayuo PST work FOC work yesterday
„Bayuo worked (yesterday).“
Dɛr
Dɛr
nyuuri
drink.IPFV
lá
FOC
a
DEF
kʊɔ
water
wɪɛʊ.
quickly
Dɛr nyuuri lá a kʊɔ wɪɛʊ.
Dɛr drink.IPFV FOC DEF water quickly
„Dɛr is drinking the water quickly.“
Zeɛmɛ
Ziema
dà
PST
kɔ
give.PFV
dà
PST
korɔ
give.IPFV
lá
FOC
Naapɔge
Napog
doge.
pot
Zeɛmɛ dà kɔ / dà korɔ lá Naapɔge doge.
Ziema PST give.PFV / PST give.IPFV FOC Napog pot
„Ziema gave / is giving Napog a pot.“

### Verb phrase

The VP in Dagaare consists of a preverbal particle encoding tense, the predicate, and a postverbal particle with a function yet to be fully investigated.

#### Preverbal particles

Daagare marks past and future tenses by the use of preverbal particles. Present tense is not marked or lexicalized in this language. These preverbal particles function like auxiliary verbs in Indo-European languages lexicalizing tense and aspectual features.
Badɛr
spider
dà
PST
kpi-e
die-IPFV
lá.
FOC
Badɛr dà kpi-e lá.
spider PST die-IPFV FOC
„The spider died.“
O
3.SG
na
FUT
ngmɛ
beat
ma
1.SG
lá.
FOC
O na ngmɛ ma lá.
3.SG FUT beat 1.SG FOC
„S/he will beat me.“
Contrary to Indo-European languages like English, French and Norwegian, Dagaare exhibits the lexicalization of a habitual marker. While in the Indo-European languages this habitual marker is basically an adverb, in Dagaare it is realized as the preverbal particle mang. This preverbal particle can only occur after the subject, thus it is not an adverb, since adverbs are more flexible in the positions they can potentially occur in within the clause.
O
3.SG
mang
HAB
ngmeɛ-rɛ
beat-IPFV
ma
1.SG
lá
FOC
yaga.
plenty
O mang ngmeɛ-rɛ ma lá yaga.
3.SG HAB beat-IPFV 1.SG FOC plenty
„S/he is always beating me a lot.“

#### Major particles

| Tense, Aspect, Modal Particles | Dagaare |
| today (also: once upon a time) | da |
| one day away | zaa |
| two or more days away | daar |
| habitual | mang |
| still, not yet | nang |
| actually | sorong |
| once again, as usual | yaa |
| suddenly, just | deɛ |
| nonfuture negative | ba |
| future affix | na |
| future negative | kong |
| imperative subjunctive negative | ta |
| again | là |
These preverbal particles are difficult to classify as temporal, aspectual, modal and polar, since the relationship between polarity and tense in the Mabia languages is very tight. This means that a particular preverbal particle can express a positive or negative action in the past (da) or a positive or negative action in the future (na). The na particle for instance does not only mark tense, but also positivity of an action. Its counterpart kong is not simply the negation of an action, but also indicating the tense of this action.

#### Main verb

The main verb in Dagaare consists of a verb stem and a suffix. This suffix encodes perfective or imperfective aspect. In this system, the speaker considers an action as either completed or not yet completed, irrespective of whether the action happens in the present or past tense. There is the verbal suffix form -ng in Dagaare, whose function is to affirm or emphasize the verbal action. This affix is in complementary distribution with the postverbal particle la, also shown in the subsection on this postverbal particle.
Ò
3.SG
dà
PST
kul-ee
go.home-PERF.INTR
lá.
FOC
Ò dà kul-ee lá.
3.SG PST go.home-PERF.INTR FOC
„S/he went home.“
Ò
3.SG
dà
PST
kul-o
go.home-IPFV
lá.
FOC
Ò dà kul-o lá.
3.SG PST go.home-IPFV FOC
„S/he was going home.“
Ò
3.SG
kul-o
go.home-IPFV
lá.
FOC
Ò kul-o lá.
3.SG go.home-IPFV FOC
„S/he is going home.“
Most verb roots in Dagaare are monosyllabic and combine with inflectional affixes. As already mentioned, the main inflectional affixes in Dagaare express aspect. There are then three distinct inflectional affix forms, one imperfective or progressive affix (-ro) and two perfective or completive affixes (-∅, -e). Imperative forms are homophonous with the perfective transitive forms. An interesting aspect of the Mabia verbal system is that verbs can be classified into pairs of oppositions depending on causativity, transitivity, reversivity and other derivational processes.

#### Postverbal particle

The postverbal particle la mainly marks factivity, polarity, affirmation or even emphasis.* It usually occurs in postverbal position, but under particular pragmatic constraints it can also occur preverbally. The la particle is in complementary distribution with negative polarity particles.
*Note that the postverbal particle is glossed as FOC here. Since its glossing in the literature is not consistent and therefore its syntactic nature is not so clear, I thus propose that the postverbal particle may function as a focus marker, while previous research assumed it to be a factive marker.
Ò
3.SG
na
FUT.POS
kul
go.home
lá.
FOC
Ò na kul lá.
3.SG FUT.POS go.home FOC
„S/he will not go home.“
Ò
3.SG
kong
FUT.NEG
kul
go.home
(*lá).
(FOC)
Ò kong kul (*lá).
3.SG FUT.NEG go.home (FOC)
„S/he will not go home.“
Besides being in complementary distribution with negative polarity particles, there are four main constraints on the la particle in Dagaare. Firstly, it never occurs after adjuncts postverbally.
Bayuo
Bayuo
dà
PST
gbir-ee
sleep-PERF.INTR
lá
FOC
velaa.
good
Bayuo dà gbir-ee lá velaa.
Bayuo PST sleep-PERF.INTR FOC good
„Bayuo slept well.“
*Bayuo
Bayuo
dà
PST
gbir-ee
sleep-PERF.INTR
velaa
good
lá.
FOC
*Bayuo dà gbir-ee velaa lá.
Bayuo PST sleep-PERF.INTR good FOC
„*Bayuo slept well.“
Secondly, it occurs before all full NP complements, but it never intervenes between any two full NPs nor follows them.
Ò
3.SG
dà
PST
ko
give
lá
FOC
Dɛre
Dere
a
DEF
gane.
book
Ò dà ko lá Dɛre a gane.
3.SG PST give FOC Dere DEF book
„S/he gave Dere the book.“
*Ò
3.SG
dà
PST
ko
give
Dɛre
Dere
lá
FOC
a
DEF
gane.
book
*Ò dà ko Dɛre lá a gane.
3.SG PST give Dere FOC DEF book
„*S/he gave Dere the book.“
Thirdly, a pronominal complement must intervene between the verb and the postverbal particle. In this case the affixal form of the particle -ng is attached to the indirect object pronoun ma.
Ò
3.SG
dà
PST
ko
give
ma
1.SG
lá
FOC
a
DEF
gane.
book
Ò dà ko ma lá a gane.
3.SG PST give 1.SG FOC DEF book
„S/he gave me the book.“
Ò
3.SG
dà
PST
ko
give
mang
1.SG.FOC
a
DEF
gane.
book
Ò dà ko mang a gane.
3.SG PST give 1.SG.FOC DEF book
„S/he gave me the book.“
*Ò
3.SG
dà
PST
ko
give
lá
FOC
ma
1.SG
a
DEF
gane.
book
*Ò dà ko lá ma a gane.
3.SG PST give FOC 1.SG DEF book
„*S/he gave me the book.“
Lastly, under pragmatic circumstances the particle can occur in certain positions within the clause in order to emphasize the role of particular elements. In the example below, the particle either occurs after the subject NP and before the verb in order to focus the subject and not the action of the sentence or the particle occurs postverbally in order to focus the action and not the subject of the clause.
Badɛre
spider
lá
FOC
kpi.
die.PERF
Badɛre lá kpi.
spider FOC die.PERF
„The spider died.“
Badɛre
spider
kpi-e
die-PERF.INTR
lá
FOC
Badɛre kpi-e lá
spider die-PERF.INTR FOC
„The spider died.“

### Questions

There are two types of questions in Dagaare. Usually, questions are formed by a question word in the sentence-initial position, but in a few cases there is either a question marker that has to occur in sentence-final position or the question word can appear in situ.

#### Ex situ

The Dagaare bong questions correspond to wh-questions in English, but since most of the question words in Dagaare start with the letter b, it makes no sense to refer to them as wh-questions as well and therefore one can refer to them as bong questions. These questions exhibit the question word ex situ and vary according to its Q-element.
Bòng
what
lá
FOC
dà
PST
è?
COP
Bòng lá dà è?
what FOC PST COP
„What happened?“
àng
who
lá
FOC
dà
PST
yíélì
sing.PFV
yíélè?
sing.IPFV
àng lá dà yíélì / yíélè?
who FOC PST sing.PFV / sing.IPFV
„Who sang / is singing?“
In some cases, the Q-element is followed not only by the particle lá, but additionally by the complementizer kà. This might indicate that the Q-element occupies the specifier position and the complementizer appears in the head position of the CP. The particle lá occurs in between both elements and might mark focus, in this case verbal focus.
Bòng
what
lá
FOC
kà
SUBR
fo
2.SG
mɛ?
build.PFV
Bòng lá kà fo mɛ?
what FOC SUBR 2.SG build.PFV
„What did you build?“
Lastly, multiple questions are highly marked in Dagaare. In these cases, one Q-element occurs ex situ and the other one(s) in situ.
??Àng
who
lá
FOC
dá
buy.PFV
bòng?
what
??Àng lá dá bòng?
who FOC buy.PFV what
„Who bought what?“
??Àng
who
lá
FOC
gaa
travel
yeng?
where
??Àng lá gaa yeng?
who FOC travel where
„Who traveled where?“

#### In situ

Examples for a question that do not exhibit the question word ex situ are the so-called bee questions, which are known as yes-/no- questions in languages like English. These questions only require a yes- or no-answer instead of a more complex and informative answer. Bee is here the particular question marker, which has to appear obligatorily as the final element of the clause. These questions can express contrastive focus.
Dabuo
Dabuo
gbire
sleep.IPFV
lá
FOC
bee
Q
Dabuo gbire lá bee
Dabuo sleep.IPFV FOC Q
„Is Dabuo sleeping?“
Ai,
no
Ayuo
Ayuo
lá
FOC
gbire.
sleep.IPFV
Ai, Ayuo lá gbire.
no Ayuo FOC sleep.IPFV
„No, Ayuo is sleeping.“
Besides this type of question, there are cases, in which the question word can also appear in situ. These questions might correspond to echo questions.
Dɔɔsaa
Doosaa
di
eat
lá
FOC
bòng?
what
Dɔɔsaa di lá bòng?
Doosaa eat FOC what
„What did Doosaa eat?“
Ò
3.SG
ba
NEG
di
eat
bonzaa.
nothing
Ò ba di bonzaa.
3.SG NEG eat nothing
„She ate nothing.“

#### Long distance extraction

In Dagaare the question word can cross a clause-boundary, which gives rise to long distance extraction. The following examples illustrates the potential positions within the clause, in which the question word can occur. Note that only in the second example below a focus marker occurs, which varies from la to na. Moreover, the two complementizers indicate the clause boundary across which the question word has been moved.
Bòng
what
kà
SUBR
Ayuo
Ayuo
sogri
ask
kà
SUBR
John
John
dà
PST
kɔ?
slaughter
Bòng kà Ayuo sogri kà John dà kɔ?
what SUBR Ayuo ask SUBR John PST slaughter
„What did Ayuo ask that John slaughtered?“
Ayuo
Ayuo
sogri
ask
na
FOC
John
John
bòng
what
na
FOC
ɔ
3.SG
nangkɔ.
REL.slaughter
Ayuo sogri na John bòng na ɔ nangkɔ.
Ayuo ask FOC John what FOC 3.SG REL.slaughter
„Ayuo asks what John slaughtered.“
Ayuo
Ayuo
sogri
ask
kà
SUBR
bòng
what
kà
SUBR
John
John
kɔ.
slaughter
Ayuo sogri kà bòng kà John kɔ.
Ayuo ask SUBR what SUBR John slaughter
„Ayuo asks what it is that John slaughters.“