# Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions

The Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions, also known as Northwest Semitic inscriptions, are the primary extra-Biblical source for understanding of the societies and histories of the ancient Phoenicians, Hebrews and Arameans. Semitic inscriptions may occur on stone slabs, pottery ostraca, ornaments, and range from simple names to full texts. The older inscriptions form a Canaanite–Aramaic dialect continuum, exemplified by writings which scholars have struggled to fit into either category, such as the Stele of Zakkur and the Deir Alla Inscription.
The Northwest Semitic languages are a language group that contains the Aramaic language, as well as the Canaanite languages including Phoenician and Hebrew.

## Languages

The old Aramaic period (850 to 612 BC) saw the production and dispersal of inscriptions due to the rise of the Arameans as a major force in Ancient Near East. Their language was adopted as an international language of diplomacy, particularly during the late stages of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as well as the spread of Aramaic speakers from Egypt to Mesopotamia. The first known Aramaic inscription was the Carpentras Stela, found in southern France in 1704; it was considered to be Phoenician text at the time.
Only 10,000 inscriptions in Phoenician-Punic, a Canaanite language, are known, such that "Phoenician probably remains the worst transmitted and least known of all Semitic languages." The only other substantial source for Phoenician-Punic are the excerpts in Poenulus, a play written by the Roman writer Plautus (see Punic language § Example for an analysis). Within the corpus of inscriptions only 668 words have been attested, including 321 hapax legomena (words only attested a single time), per Wolfgang Röllig's analysis in 1983. This compares to the Bible's 7,000–8,000 words and 1,500 hapax legomena, in Biblical Hebrew. The first published Phoenician-Punic inscription was from the Cippi of Melqart, found in 1694 in Malta; the first published such inscription from the Phoenician "homeland" was the Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II published in 1855.
Fewer than 2,000 inscriptions in Ancient Hebrew, another Canaanite language, are known, of which the vast majority comprise just a single letter or word. The first detailed Ancient Hebrew inscription published was the Royal Steward inscription, found in 1870.

## List of notable inscriptions

The inscriptions written in ancient Northwest Semitic script (Canaanite and Aramaic) have been catalogued into multiple corpora (i.e., lists) over the last two centuries. The primary corpora to have been produced are as follows:
* Hamaker, Hendrik Arent (1828). Miscellanea Phoenicia, sive Commentarii de rebus Phoenicum, quibus inscriptiones multae lapidum ac nummorum, nominaque propria hominum et locorum explicantur, item Punicae gentis lingua et religiones passim illustrantur. S. et J. Luchtmans.: Hamaker's review assessed 13 inscriptions
* Wilhelm Gesenius, Scripturae Linguaeque Phoeniciae. In the 1830s, only approximately 80 inscriptions and 60 coins were known in the entire Phoenicio-Punic corpus
* Schröder, Paul [in German] (1869). Die phönizische sprache. Entwurf Einer Grammatik, Nebst Sprach- und Schriftproben. Halle, Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses.: The first study of Phoenician grammar, listed 332 texts known at the time
* CIS: Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum; the first section is focused on Phoenician-Punic inscriptions (176 "Phoenician" inscriptions and 5982 "Punic" inscriptions)
* KAI: Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften, considered the "gold standard" for the last fifty years
* NSI: George Albert Cooke, 1903: Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions: Moabite, Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene, Jewish
* NE: Mark Lidzbarski, 1898: Handbuch der Nordsemitischen Epigraphik, nebst ausgewählten Inschriften: I Text and II Plates
* KI: Lidzbarski, Mark (1907). Kanaanäische Inschriften (moabitisch, althebräisch, phönizisch, punisch). A. Töpelmann.
* TSSI: Gibson, J. C. L. (1971). Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions: I. Hebrew and Moabite Inscriptions. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-813159-5. Volume III. Phoenician Inscriptions, Including Inscriptions in the Mixed Dialect of Arslan Tash (Oxford: OUP, 1982; ISBN 978-0-19-813199-1)
* TAD: Bezalel Porten and Ada Yardeni (1986–2000), Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt
* Renz, J.; Röllig, W. (1995). Handbuch der althebräischen Epigraphik (in German). Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 978-3-534-12297-4.
* Jongeling, K. (2008). Handbook of Neo-Punic Inscriptions. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-149303-4.
* Sass, Benjamin; Finkelstein, Israel (2013). "The West Semitic Alphabetic Inscriptions, Late Bronze II to Iron IIA: Archeological Context, Distribution and Chronology". Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel. 2 (2): 149. doi:10.1628/219222713X13757034787838.
The inscriptions listed below include those which are mentioned in multiple editions of the corpora above (the numbers in the concordance column cross-refer to the works above), as well as newer inscriptions which have been published since the corpora above were published (references provided individually). They are ordered chronologically by date of their modern discovery, illustrating the development of the study of ancient Semitic epigraphy.
| Name | Image | Discovered | No. units | Est. Date | Location found | Current Location | Concordance | Concordance | Concordance | Concordance | Concordance | Concordance | Concordance |
| Name | Image | Discovered | No. units | Est. Date | Location found | Current Location | KAI | CIS / RÉS | NE | KI | NSI | TSSI | Oth. ref. |
| Punic-Libyan bilinguals | | 1631 | 2 | | Dougga | British Museum | 100–101 | | 433,c | 93 | 52 | | |
| Cippi of Melqart | | 1694 | 2 | 100s BC | Malta | Louvre and National Museum of Archaeology, Malta | 47 | I 122 | 425f | 53 | 36 | | |
| Carpentras Stela | | 1704 | 1 | | Carpentras | Bibliothèque Inguimbertine | 269 | II 141 | 448b1 | | 75 | II 24 | |
| Pococke Kition inscriptions | | 1738 | 31 | 300s BC | Cyprus | Ashmolean Museum | 33, 35 | I 11, 46, 57–85 | 420,4 | 19, 23, 27, 28 | 13, 16, 18, 19 | III 35 | |
| Benhisa inscription | | 1761 | 1 | | Malta | Cabinet des Médailles | | I 124 | 426,3 | 55 | | | |
| Phoenician Harpocrates statues | | 1770, 1963 | 2 | | unknown | National Archaeological Museum (Madrid) and British Museum | 52 | R 1507 | 424 | 44 | | III 37, 38 | |
| Nora Stone | | 1773 | 1 | | Sardinia | Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari | 46 | I 144 | 427c | 60 | 41 | III 11 | |
| Athenian Greek-Phoenician inscriptions | | 1795 etc. | 18 | | Athens, Piraeus | British Museum, Louvre, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Archaeological Museum of Piraeus | 53–60 | I 115–120, R 388, 1215 | 424,1–3, 425,1–5 | 45–52 | 32–35 | III 40–41 | |
| Tripolitania Punic inscriptions | | 1806 | | | Leptis Magna, Breviglieri, other | | 118–132 | R 662 | 434, B-a | | | | |
| Elephantine papyri and ostraca | | 1815–1945 | | 300s BC | Elephantine | various | 270–271 | II 137–139, 154–155 | | | 73–74 | II 26, 28 | |
| Mdina steles | | 1816 | 2 | | Malta | National Museum of Archaeology, Malta | 61 | I 123A–B | 426,2 | 54 | 37 | III 21,22 | |
| Carthaginian tombstones | | 1817 onwards | | | Carthage | Carthage National Museum, others | 85 | various | | 74 | | | |
| Humbert Punic inscriptions | | 1817 | 5 | | Carthage | Rijksmuseum van Oudheden | | I 240 | 431, 9 | | | | |
| Hamaker Punic inscriptions | | 1823 | 3 | | Carthage | Rijksmuseum van Oudheden | | I 173, I 440 | 432, 16 | | | | |
| Turin Aramaic Papyrus | | 1823–24 | 1 | | | Museo Egizio | | II 144 | | | | | |
| Blacas papyrus | | 1825 | 1 | | Saqqara | British Library | | II 145 | | | 76 | | |
| Falbe Punic inscriptions | | 1831 | 3 | | Carthage | Copehagen University museum, British Museum | | I 199 | 431, 10 | 75 | | | |
| Limyra bilingual | | 1840 | 1 | | Limyra | | 262 | II 109 | 446b | | | | |
| Abu Simbel Phoenician graffiti | | 1842 | | | Abu Simbel | in situ | | I 111-113 | 423b | 43 | | | |
| Ain Nechma inscriptions | | 1843 | 40 | | Guelma | Louvre | 166–169 | | 437 | | 58 | | |
| Kellia inscription | | 1844 | 1 | | Cyprus | | 36 | I 47 | 420,5 | 24 | 17 | | |
| Marseille Tariff | | 1845 | 1 | 300s BC | Marseille | Musée d'archéologie méditerranéenne | 69 | I 165 | 428 | 63 | 42 | | |
| Nimrud ivory inscriptions | | 1845, 1961 | | | Nimrud | British Museum | | | | | | I 6 | |
| Assyrian lion weights | | 1845–1860 | | 800–500 BC | Nimrud, Abydos (Hellespont) | British Museum, Louvre | 263 | II 1–14, 108 | 446c | | 66-67 | | |
| Phoenician metal bowls | | 1849 onwards | c. 5-10 | 700s BC | Nimrud, Cyprus, Italy and others | various | | I 164, II 46–49 | | | | III 19 | |
| Anat Athena bilingual | | 1850 | 1 | 312 BCE | Cyprus | in situ | 42 | I 95, R 1515 | 422,1 | 35 | 28 | | |
| Bourgade inscriptions | | 1852 | c. 40 | | Carthage and wider Tunisia | | 133–135 | | 436,3–12 | | 54 | | |
| Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II | | 1855 | 1 | c. 525 BC | Sidon | Louvre | 14 | I 3, R 1506 | 417,2 | 7 | 5 | III 28 | |
| Gozo stele | | 1855 | 1 | | Malta | Gozo Museum of Archaeology | 62 | I 132 | 426,4 | 56 | 38 | | |
| Serapeum Offering Table | | 1855 | 1 | 400 BC | Saqqara | Louvre | 268 | II 123 | 448a2 | | 72 | | |
| Cirta steles | | 1857–61, 1875, 1950 | c. 1,000 | 300-100BCE | Constantine | Musée national Cirta | 102–116, 162–164 | R 327, 334, 339, 1544 | 433,1–9 and 434,10–12 | 94–99 | 51 | | |
| Carthage Tariff | | 1856-58 | 1 | 300 BC | Carthage | British Museum | 74 | I 167 | 429b | 66 | 43 | | |
| Son of Baalshillek marble base | | 1856-58 | 1 | | Carthage | British Museum | 84 | I 178 | 430,7 | 73 | | | |
| Carthage tower model | | 1856-58 | 1 | | Carthage | British Museum | | I 181 | 432, 14 | | 48 | | |
| Bodashtart inscriptions | | 1858, 1900-2 | 22-24 | 300s BC | Sidon | Louvre and Museum of the Ancient Orient | 15–16 | I 4, R 766, 767 | | 8–10 | 6, Appendix I | | |
| Kition Resheph pillars | | 1860 | 2 | 341 BC | Cyprus | Louvre | 32 | I 10, 88 | 420,1 | 18, 30 | 12, 23 | | |
| Ankh-Hapy stele | | 1860 | 1 | 525–404 BCE | unknown | Vatican Museums | 272 | II 142 | 448b2 | | | II 7 | |
| Pauli Gerrei trilingual inscription | | 1861 | 1 | | Sardinia | Turin Archaeology Museum | 66 | I 143 | 427b | 59 | 40 | | |
| Baalshamin inscription | | 1861 | 1 | 132 BC | Umm al-Amad | Louvre | 18 | I 7 | 418,d | 12 | 9 | | |
| Phoenician sun dial | | 1860–1945 | 1 | | Umm al-Amad | National Museum of Beirut | | I 9 | | | | | |
| Umm al-Amad votive inscription | | 1861 | 1 | | Umm al-Amad, Lebanon | Louvre | | I 8 | 419,2 | 13 | | | |
| Cesnola Phoenician inscriptions | | 1865-71 | 28 | | Kition | Metropolitan Museum of Art | | I 14-39, RES 1521-34 | | | | | |
| Khaznadar inscriptions | | 1866-69 | c.120 | | Carthage | Bardo National Museum (Tunis), Louvre | 88 | various | 431,11-13, 431,15 | 82-84 | | | |
| Hadrumetum Punic inscriptions | | 1867, 1946 | 12 | | Sousse | Sousse Archaeological Museum, the Louvre and the Maison méditerranéenne des Sciences de l'homme | 97–99 | | 432,1–3 | 91–92 | | | |
| Mesha Stele | | 1868 | 1 | | Dhiban | Louvre | 181 | | 415 | 1 | 1 | I 16 | |
| Abydos graffiti | | 1868 | | | Abydos | in situ | 49 | I 99–110, R 1302ff. | 423a | 38-42 | 31 | | |
| Idalion bilingual and Idalion Temple inscriptions | | 1869 | 6 | 391–254 BC | Idalion, Cyprus | British Museum | 38–40 | I 89–94 | 421,1–3 | 31–33 | 24–27 | III 34 | |
| Yehawmilk Stele | | 1869 | 1 | c.450/425 BCE | Byblos | Louvre | 10 | I 1 | 416 | 5 | 3 | III 25 | |
| Tharros Punic inscriptions | | 1870 | 14 | | Sardinia | Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari, Museo nazionale archeologico ed etnografico G. A. Sanna | 67 | I 153-161 | | 61-62 | | | |
| Royal Steward inscription | | 1870 | 1 | | Jerusalem | British Museum | 191 | | | | | I 8 | |
| Carthaginian slaughterhouse inscription | | 1871 | 1 | | Carthage | British Museum | 80 | I 175 | 430,4 | 68 | 46 | | |
| Carthaginian mother goddess inscription | | 1871 | 1 | | Carthage | | 83 | I 177 | 430,6 | 72 | 47 | | |
| Carthage Festival Offering inscription | | 1872 | 1 | 300 BC | Carthage | Turin Archaeology Museum | 76 | I 166 | 430,3 | 67 | 44 | | |
| Wilmanns Neopunic inscriptions | | 1873-74 | 5 | | Tunisia | Louvre and Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | 139, 142, 159 | | 435,2, 437a | | 53, 55 | | |
| Pricot de Sainte-Marie steles | | 1874–75 | >2,000 | | Carthage | Bibliothèque nationale de France, Louvre | 86–87 | I c.200–c.2000 | | 76-80 | 49 | | |
| Cherchell Neopunic inscriptions | | 1875, 1882 | 2 | | Cherchell | Louvre | 161 | | 439,2 | | 56–57 | | |
| Bashamem inscription | | 1877 | 1 | 200 BC | Sardinia | Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari | 64 | I 139 | 427a | 58 | 39 | | |
| Baal Lebanon inscription | | 1877 | 1 | 700s BC | Cyprus | Cabinet des Médailles | 31 | I 5 | 419 | 17 | 11 | III 17 | |
| Saqqara Aramaic Stele | | 1877 | 1 | 482 BC | Saqqara | destroyed | 267 | II 122 | 448a1 | | 71 | II 23 | |
| Tayma stones | | 1878–1884 | 21 | 300s–400s BC | Tayma | Louvre | 228–230 | II 113–115 | 447,1–3 | | 69–70 | II 30 | |
| Kition Tariffs | | 1879 | 2 | 300s BC | Cyprus | British Museum | 37 | I 86A–B, 87 | | 29 | 20 | III 33 | |
| Adadnadinakhe bricks | | 1880s | 20+ | 300-100 BC | Girsu | Louvre, Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | | II 72 | 446c | | | | |
| Siloam inscription | | 1880 | 1 | | Jerusalem | Museum of the Ancient Orient | 189 | | | 3 | 2 | I 7 | |
| Sant'Antioco bilingual | | 1881 | 1 | | Sardinia | Museo archeologico comunale Ferruccio Barreca | 172 | I 149 | 434,1 | 100 | 60 | | |
| Palmyra Tariff | | 1881 | 1 | 100s CE | Palmyra | Hermitage Museum | | | | | | | |
| Osorkon Bust | | 1881 | 1 | c.920 BC | Byblos | Louvre | 6 | | | | | III 8 | |
| Pierides Kition inscriptions | | 1881 | 7 | | Cyprus | Louvre | | 12, 13, 14, 50–53 | | 20, 25–26 | 14 | | |
| Eshmun obelisk | | 1881 | 1 | | Cyprus | British Museum | | I 44 | 420,2 | 21 | 15 | | |
| Persephone Punic stele | | 1881 | 1 | | Carthage | Turin Archaeology Museum | 82 | I 176 | | 71 | | | |
| Lilybaeum stele | | 1882 | 1 | | Sicily | Regional Archeological Museum Antonio Salinas | 63 | I 138 | | 57 | | | |
| Henchir Guergour Neopunic inscriptions | | 1882 | | | Tunisia | | 143–144 | | | | | | |
| Guelaât Bou Sbaâ Neopunic inscriptions | | 1884 | | | Algeria | | 165 | | | | | | |
| Hegra Nabataean inscriptions | | 1884-85 | | | Hegra | | | II 197-334 | | | 78-93 | IV 7-8 | |
| Tyre Cistern inscription | | 1885 | 1 | | Tyre | Louvre | | | 418,c | | 8 | | |
| Tamassos bilinguals | | 1885 | 2 | 363 BC | Tamassos, Cyprus | British Museum | 41 | R 1212–1213 | 421c | 34 | 30 | | |
| Masub inscription | | 1885 | 1 | 222 BC | Masub | Louvre | 19 | R 1205 | 419e | 16 | 10 | III 31 | |
| Tabnit sarcophagus | | 1887 | 1 | 500 BC | Sidon | Museum of the Ancient Orient | 13 | R 1202 | 417,1 | 6 | 4 | III 27 | |
| Panamuwa II inscription | | 1888 | 1 | 730s BC | Sam'al | Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | 215 | | 442 | | 62 | II 14 | |
| Madaba Nabataean Inscriptions | | 1889 | 1 | 37 CE | Madaba | Louvre and Vatican Museums | | II 196 | | | 96 | IV 9 | |
| Hadad Statue | | 1890 | 1 | 700s BC | Sam'al | Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | 214 | | 440-2 | | 61 | II 13 | |
| Abdmiskar cippus | | 1890 | 1 | 300 BCE | Sidon | Louvre | 282 | R 930 | 418,3 | 11 | 7 | | |
| Abdbaal the centurion inscription | | 1890s | 1 | | near Tyre | Louvre | | | | | | | |
| Maktar and Mididi inscriptions | | 1890s | >150 | | Maktar and Mididi | | 145–158 | R 161–181, 2221 | 436,11 | | 59a-c | | |
| Bar-Rakib inscriptions | | 1891 | 8 | 730s BC | Sam'al | Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin and Museum of the Ancient Orient | 216–221 | | 443, 444 | | 63 | II 15–17 | |
| Neirab steles | | 1891 | 2 | 600s BC | Al-Nayrab | Louvre | 225–226 | | 445 | | 64–65 | II 18–19 | |
| Sarıaydın inscription | | 1892 | 1 | 400 BC | Sarıaydın | in situ | 261 | | 446a | | 68 | II 35 | |
| Larnakas tis Lapithou pedestal inscription | | 1893 | 1 | 275 BCE | Cyprus | Louvre | 43 | R 1211 | 422,2 | 36 | 29 | III 36 | |
| Kilamuwa Stela | | 1893 | 1 | c. 850/825 BCE | Sam'al | Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | 24 | | | | | III 13 | |
| Hasanbeyli inscription | | 1894 | 1 | | Hasanbeyli | Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | 23 | | | | | | |
| Kition Necropolis Phoenician inscriptions | | 1894 | 4 | 300s BC | Cyprus | British Museum, Cyprus Museum, Ashmolean Museum | 34 | R 1206 | 420,3 | 22 | 21-22 | | |
| Douïmès medallion | | 1894 | 1 | 700 BCE | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 73 | I 6057, R 5 | 429,1 | 70 | | | |
| El Amrouni mausoleum | | 1894 | 1 | | Remada | | 117 | | 435b | 101 | | | |
| Abiba’l inscription | | 1895 | 1 | c.940/930 BCE | Byblos | Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | 5 | R 505 | | | | III 7 | |
| Arebsun inscriptions | | 1895 | 1 | | Afşin | Museum of the Ancient Orient | 264 | R 1785 | | | | | |
| Tortosa bomos inscription | | 1896 | 1 | | Tortosa, Syria | Louvre | | R 56 | | | | | |
| El-Osiris inscription | | 1896 | 1 | | Umm al-Amad | Louvre | | R 504 | | | | | [37] [38] |
| Avignon Punic inscription | | 1897 | 1 | | Avignon | Musée d'archéologie méditerranéenne | 70 | R 360 | | 64 | | III 18 | |
| | | 1898 | 1 | 200 BC | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 81 | I 3914 | | 69 | 45 | | |
| Punic Tabella Defixionis | | 1899 | 1 | 200 BC | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 89 | I 6068, R 18, 1590 | | 85 | 50 | | |
| | | 1899 | | | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 91 | I 5991, R 1227 | | 88 | | | |
| Quintus Markius trilingual inscription | | 1899 | 1 | middle of 1st century BC | Henchir-Alouin (near Uthina) | Louvre | | R 79 | | | | | |
| Farasa bilingual inscription | | 1900 | 1 | | | In situ | 265 | | | | | | |
| Phoenician Adoration steles | | 1900 | 1 | | Umm al-Amad, Lebanon | Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Louvre | | R 250, R 307 | | 14–15 | | | |
| Banobal stele | | 1900 | 1 | | Memphis | Egyptian Museum | 48 | R 1, 235 | | 37 | | | |
| | | 1900 | | | Bou Arada | | 140 | R 679 | | | | | |
| | | 1901 | | | Carthage | | 96 | I 5988, R 183, 1600 | | | | | |
| Eshmun inscription | | 1901 | 1 | | Sidon | Museum of the Ancient Orient | | R 297 | | | | | |
| Sibbolet funeral inscription | | 1902 | 1 | | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 92 | I 5948, R 768 | | 89 | | | |
| Stele of Zakkur | | 1903 | 1 | | Tell Afis | Louvre | 202 | | | | | II 5 | |
| Villaricos Phoenician stele | | 1903-04 | 1 | | Villaricos | National Archaeological Museum (Madrid) | | | | 65 | | | |
| Assur ostracon and tablets | | 1903–1913 | 10 | | Assur | Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin | 233-6 | | | | | II 20 | |
| Baal Hannon tomb inscription | | 1904 | | | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 90 | I 5953, R 537 | | 87 | | | |
| | | 1905 | | | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 93 | I 5950, R 553 | | 90 | | | |
| | | 1906 | | | Carthage | | 77 | I 3921 | | | | | |
| Lake Sivan inscriptions | | 1906 | | | Armenia | | 274–275 | | | | | | |
| | | 1906 | | | Carthage | | 95 | R 786, 1854 | | | | | |
| Throne of Astarte | | 1907 | 1 | | Tyre | Louvre and National Museum of Beirut | 17 | R 800 | | | | III 30 | |
| | | 1907 | 1 | | Carthage | | 94 | I 2992 | | | | | |
| Gözne Boundary Stone | | 1907 | 1 | | Gözne | | 259 | | | | | II 34 | |
| Thinissut sanctuary inscription | | 1908 | 1 | | Bir Bouregba | Nabeul Museum | 137 | R 942, 1858 | | | | | |
| Gezer calendar | | 1908 | 1 | | Gezer | Museum of the Ancient Orient | 182 | R 1201 | | | | I 1 | |
| Samaria Ostraca | | 1910 | 102 | | Sebastia | Museum of the Ancient Orient | 183–188 | | | | | I 2–3 | |
| Olbia pedestal | | 1911 | 1 | | Sardinia | | 68 | R 1216 | | | | | |
| Giardino Birocchi inscription | | 1912 | 1 | | Sardinia | Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari | 65 | | | | | | |
| Sardis bilingual inscription | | 1912 | 1 | 394 BC | Sardis | İzmir Archaeological Museum | 260 | | | | | | |
| Rhodes Phoenician-Greek bilingual inscriptions | | 1914–68 | 3 | 300–200 BCE | Rhodes | Archaeological Museum of Rhodes | 44–45 | | | | | III 39 | |
| Bur Tlelsa Neopunic inscription | | 1914 | 1 | | Tunisia | | 138 | | | | | | |
| Kesecek Köyü inscription | | 1915 | 1 | | Kesecek Köyü | Peabody Museum of Natural History | 258 | | | | | II 33 | |
| Aramaic Inscription of Taxila | | 1915 | 1 | | Taxila | Taxila Museum | 273 | | | | | | |
| Arwad bilingual | | 1916 | 1 | | Arwad | Louvre | | | | | | | |
| Zattara Neopunic inscriptions | | 1916 | | | Algeria | | 171 | | | | | | |
| Mitsri genealogy inscription | | 1922 | 1 | 300s BCE | Carthage | | 78 | I 3778 | | | | | |
| | | 1920 | | | Carthage | | 75 | I 3916 | | | | | |
| KNMY's child sacrifice(?) inscription | | 1922 | 1 | | Carthage | | 79 | I 3785 | | | | | |
| Ibiza Phoenician inscriptions | | 1923 | | | | Archaeological Museum of Alicante | 72 | | | | | | |
| Ahiram Sarcophagus | | 1923 | 1 | c.1000 BCE | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | 1 | | | | | III 4 | |
| Byblos Necropolis graffito | | 1923 | 1 | c.1000 BCE | Byblos | in situ | 2 | | | | | III 5 | |
| Byblos altar inscription | | 1923 | 1 | 200–100 BCE | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | 12 | | | | | | |
| Ophel ostracon | | 1924 | 1 | | Jerusalem | Rockefeller Museum | 190 | | | | | I 9 | |
| Phoenician arrowheads | | 1926 onwards | c. 70 | 11th century BCE | various | various | 20–22 | | | | | III p. 6 | |
| Ur Box inscription | | 1927 | 1 | | Ur | British Museum | 29 | | | | | III 20 | |
| Byblos bronze spatulas | | 1926–1932 | 1 | | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | 3 | | | | | III 1 | |
| Abda sherd | | 1926–1932 | 1 | c.900 BCE | Byblos | | 8 | | | | | III 10 | |
| Son of Safatba'al inscription | | 1926–1932 | 1 | c.500/475 BCE | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | 9 | | | | | | |
| Batnoam sarcophagus | | 1926–1932 | 1 | c.450–425 BCE | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | 11 | | | | | III 26 | |
| Sirte inscription | | 1928 | 1 | | Sirte | | 180 | | | | | | |
| Yehimilk inscription | | 1930 | 1 | c.960/950 BCE | Byblos | Byblos Castle | 4 | | | | | III 6 | |
| Sefire steles | | 1930–1956 | 3 | | As-Safira | National Museum of Damascus and National Museum of Beirut | 222–224, 227 | | | | | II 8–9, 22 | |
| Arslan Tash ivory inscription | | 1931 | 1 | | Arslan Tash | Louvre | 232 | | | | | II 2 | |
| Hama graffiti | | 1931–38 | | | Hama | | 203–213 | | | | | II 6 I–V | |
| Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription | | 1932 | 1 | c.260 BCE | Afghanistan | in situ | | | | | | | |
| Arslan Tash amulets | | 1933 | 2 | | Arslan Tash | National Museum of Aleppo | 27 | | | | | III 23–24 | |
| Tell Halaf inscription | | 1933 | 1 | | Tell Halaf | destroyed | 231 | | | | | II 10 | |
| Bithia inscription | | 1933 | 1 | | Sardinia | | 173 | | | | | | |
| Agrigentum inscription | | 1934 | 1 | 406 BCE | Carthage | | 302 | I 5510 | | | | | |
| Lachish letters | | 1935 | 1 | | Tel Lachish | British Museum and Israel Museum | 192–199 | | | | | I 12 | |
| Safatba'al inscription | | 1936 | 1 | c.900 BCE | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | 7 | | | | | III 9 | |
| Hermopolis Aramaic papyri | | 1936 | 8 | 400s BC | Hermopolis | Cairo University Archaeological Museum | | | | | | II 27 | |
| Phoenician papyrus letters | | 1937–1940 | 2 | | Cairo and Saqqara | Egyptian Museum | 50–51 | | | | | | |
| Melqart stele | | 1939 | 1 | | Bureij | National Museum of Aleppo | 201 | | | | | II 1 | |
| Honeyman inscription | | 1939 | 1 | 900 BCE | Cyprus | Cyprus Museum | 30 | | | | | III 12 | |
| Stele of Serapeitis | | 1940 | 1 | | Armazi | Georgian National Museum | 276 | | | | | | |
| Jebel Massoudj Neopunic inscription | | 1940 | 1 | | Tunisia | | 141 | | | | | | |
| Adon Papyrus | | 1942 | 1 | | Saqqara | Egyptian Museum | 266 | | | | | II 21 | |
| Kilamuwa scepter | | 1943 | 1 | | Sam'al | | 25 | | | | | III 14 | |
| Tel Qasile ostraca | | 1945–1946 | 2 | | Tel Qasile | Israel Museum | | | | | | I 4 | |
| Karatepe bilingual | | 1946 | 1 | c. 750 BCE | Karatepe | Karatepe-Aslantaş Open-Air Museum | 26 | | | | | III 15 | |
| Tel el Maskhuta silver bowls | | 1950s | | | Tel el Maskhuta | | | | | | | II 25 | |
| Pumayyaton and Pnytarion's inscriptions | | 1950s | 1 | c. 327 BC | near Dromolaxia, Cyprus | Larnaca District Archaeological Museum (n. 1425) | | | | | | | |
| Byblos clay cone inscriptions | | 1950 | 2 | 1100–1000 BCE | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | | | | | | III 2,3 | |
| Carchemish Phoenician inscription | | 1950 | 1 | | Carchemish | British Museum | 28 | | | | | | |
| Hatran Aramaic inscriptions | | 1951 | | | Hatra | | 237–257 | | | | | | |
| Djinet Neopunic inscriptions | | 1952 | | | Algeria | | 170 | | | | | | |
| Wadi Murabba'at papyrus | | 1952 | | 600s BC | Wadi Murabba'at | | | | | | | I 11 | |
| KAI 136 (Neopunic) | | 1955 | | | Tunisia | | 136 | | | | | | |
| Hazor inscriptions | | 1956 | | 800s BC | Tel Hazor | | | | | | | I 5 | |
| Al Jib jar handles | | 1956–1959 | >60 | 700s BC | Al Jib | Jordan Archaeological Museum and the Penn Museum | | | | | | I 14 | |
| Byblos marble inscription | | 1957 | 1 | 500 BCE | Byblos | National Museum of Beirut | 280 | | | | | | |
| Hashub Inscription | | 1957 | 1 | 400s BCE | Tel Zeton | Old Jaffa Museum of Antiquities | | | | | | | |
| Kubaba Aramaic inscription | | 1957 | 1 | | Bahadırlı | | 278 | | | | | II 36 | |
| El-Kerak Inscription | | 1958 | 1 | | Al-Karak | Jordan Archaeological Museum | 306 | | | | | I 17 | |
| Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription | | 1958 | 1 | | Chil Zena | National Museum of Afghanistan | 279 | | | | | | |
| Yavne-Yam ostracon | | 1960 | 1 | | Mesad Hashavyahu | Israel Museum | 200 | | | | | I 10 | |
| Arad ostraca | | 1960s | >200 | c.600 BC | Tel Arad | Bible Lands Museum | | | | | | I 13, II 31 | |
| Temple of Antas Punic inscriptions | | 1960s | | | Sardinia | | 299–301 | | | | | | |
| Nebi Yunis ostraca | | 1960s | | | Nebi Yunis (Ashdod) | | | | | | | II 32 | |
| Tel Dan bowl | | 1960s | 1 | | Tel Dan | | | | | | | II 4 | |
| Seville statue of Astarte | | 1960–1962 | 1 | 700 BCE | Seville | Archeological Museum of Seville | 294 | | | | | III 16 | |
| Khirbet Beit Lei graffiti | | 1961 | 7 | 400s BC | Khirbet Beit Lei | Israel Museum | | | | | | I 15 | |
| Amman Citadel Inscription | | 1961 | 1 | | Amman | Jordan Archaeological Museum | 307 | | | | | | |
| Ein Gev jar | | 1961 | | | Ein Gev | | | | | | | II 3 | |
| Cadiz Phoenician gold ring inscription | | 1961 | | | | Instituto Valencia of Don Juan | 71 | | | | | | |
| Phoenician Sphinx inscription | | 1962 | 1 | | Umm al-Amad | National Museum of Beirut | | | | | | III 32 | |
| Baalshillem Temple Boy | | 1963–1964 | 1 | | Sidon | National Museum of Beirut | 281 | | | | | III 29 | |
| Abydos Aramaic papyrus | | 1964 | 1 | 400s BC | unknown | National Archaeological Museum of Madrid | | | | | | II 29 | |
| Pyrgi Tablets | | 1964 | 3 | | Pyrgi | National Etruscan Museum | 277 | | | | | III 42 | |
| Carthage Administration Inscription | | 1964 | 1 | | Carthage | Carthage National Museum | 303 | | | | | | |
| Luristan Aramaic inscriptions | | 1964 | | | Luristan | | | | | | | II 11–12 | |
| Daskyleion steles | | 1965 | | | Dascylium | Museum of the Ancient Orient | 318 | | | | | II 37 | |
| Mozia Punic inscriptions | | 1967 | | | Sicily | | 296–298 | | | | | | |
| Deir Alla Inscription | | 1967 | 1 | | Deir Alla | Jordan Archaeological Museum | 312 | | | | | | |
| Grotta Regina Punic inscriptions | | 1969 | | | Sicily | | 295 | | | | | | |
| Kition KAI 288–290 | | 1970s-80s | | | Kition | | 288–290 | | | | | | |
| Tekke Bowl Inscription (Knossos) | | 1970s | | 1,000s BCE | Crete | Heraklion Archaeological Museum (Χ4346) | 291 | | | | | | |
| Aramaic Sustenance tablet | | 1970s | | | | | 316 | | | | | | |
| Aramaic inscription of Laghman | | 1970 | 1 | c.260 BCE | Afghanistan | in situ | | | | | | | |
| Aramaic Fugitive Decree | | 1971 | | | Unknown | | 317 | | | | | | |
| Tel Siran inscription | | 1972 | 1 | | Amman | Jordan Archaeological Museum | 308 | | | | | | |
| Letoon trilingual | | 1973 | 1 | | Xanthos | Fethiye Museum | 319 | | | | | | |
| Aramaic inscription from al-Mal | | 1973 | | 7/6 BC | al-Mal | | | | | | | | |
| Tell Sheikh Hamad inscriptions | | 1978–1980s | | | Tell Sheikh Hamad | | 313–314 | | | | | | |
| Hadad-yith'i bilingual inscription | | 1979 | 1 | | Tell Fekheriye | National Museum of Damascus | 309 | | | | | | |
| Ketef Hinnom scrolls | | 1979 | 2 | 650–587 BCE | Jerusalem | Israel Museum | | | | | | | |
| Sarepta Tanit Inscription | | 1980s | | | Sarafand | | 285 | | | | | | |
| Çebel Ires Daǧı inscription | | 1980 | 1 | | Çebel Ires Daǧı | Alanya Archaeological Museum | 287 | | | | | | |
| Abdalonymos bilingual | | 1982 | 1 | 325 BCE | Kos | | 292 | | | | | | |
| Monumental Hebrew inscription from Jerusalem [he] | | 1982 | 1 | 800–500 BCE | Byzantine Spolia near the Southern Wall | Israel Museum | | | | | | | |
| Hazael horse frontlet | | 1984 | 1 | 800 BCE | Samos | Archaeological Museum of Vathi | 311 | | | | | | |
| Bukan inscription | | 1985 | | | Bukan | | 320 | | | | | | |
| İvriz inscription | | 1986 | | | 75 meter upstream from the İvriz relief | | unpublished | unpublished | unpublished | unpublished | unpublished | unpublished | |
| Bactria Aramaic documents | | 1993–2002 | | 353–324 BCE | Bactria | Khalili Collections | | | | | | | |
| Tel Dan Stele | | 1993 | 1 | | Tel Dan | Israel Museum | 310 | | | | | | |
| Tell Shiukh Fawqani inscription | | 1996 | | | | | 315 | | | | | | |
| Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription | | 1996 | 1 | | Tel Miqne | Israel Museum | 286 | | | | | | |
| Çineköy inscription | | 1997 | 1 | | Çine, Yüreğir | Adana Archaeology Museum | | | | | | | |
| Tablet De Geest | | 2000 | 1 | 200s CE | Socotra | in situ | | | | | | | |
| Zayit Stone | | 2005 | 1 | c. 900 BCE | Tel Zayit | | | | | | | | |
| Kuttamuwa stele | | 2008 | 1 | | Sam'al | Gaziantep Archaeology Museum | | | | | | | |
| Khirbet Qeiyafa ostracon | | 2009 | 1 | c. 1000 BCE | Khirbet Qeiyafa | Israel Museum | | | | | | | |
| Ataruz altar inscriptions | | 2010 | | c. 800 BCE | Khirbat Ataruz | | | | | | | | |
| Ishbaal Inscription | | 2012 | | 1020–980 BCE | Khirbet Qeiyafa | | | | | | | | |
| KAI 283 | | | | | Sidon | | 283 | | | | | | |
| KAI 284 | | | | | Tyre | | 284 | | | | | | |
| Demetrias inscription | | | | | Demetrias | | 293 | | | | | | |