# Veraʼa language

Veraʼa, also known as Vatrata, is an Oceanic language spoken on the western coast of Vanua Lava Island, in the Banks Islands of northern Vanuatu.
Veraʼa was described in 2011 by linguist Stefan Schnell.

## Name

The language Veraʼa is named after the village where it is spoken. This village is known locally as Veraʼa. The alternate form Vatrata, from Mota, is occasionally used. Other cognates include Vurës and Mwesen Vetrat, and Lemerig Vera’. These names ultimately reflect a protoform *βaturata in Proto-Torres-Banks — literally "flat stone": *βatu "stone" (< POc *patu) + *rata "flat" (< POc *rataR < PAN *dataR).

## Recent history

According to recently recorded oral local history, Vanua Lava was struck by a major earthquake and landslide in 1945 that devastated gardens and hamlets on its north-west coast, as a result of which the Veraʼa community abandoned its previous settlements and resettled to its current main center of residence, the village of Veraʼa (Vatrata). Veraʼa is located about 4 km from the village of Vetuboso, the largest settlement on Vanua Lava that is inhabited mainly by speakers of the closely related language Vurës.
Together with speakers of Veraʼa, speakers of the now moribund language Lemerig moved to the village of Veraʼa. Lemerig is remembered by many residents of Veraʼa, but is no longer used in everyday communication. It is likely that the now de facto loss of the Lemerig language is the result of natural disaster and subsequent resettlement movements.

## Phonology

Veraʼa has 7 phonemic vowels, which are all short monophthongs:
| | Front | Back |
| Close | i ⟨i⟩ | u ⟨u⟩ |
| Near-close | ɪ ⟨ē⟩ | ʊ ⟨ō⟩ |
| Open-mid | ɛ ⟨e⟩ | ɔ ⟨o⟩ |
| Open | a ⟨a⟩ | a ⟨a⟩ |
There is no stress in Veraʼa, although the effects of metaphony and vowel reduction must have preceded its loss.
Veraʼa is unique within the local languages of Vanua Lava in that a Proto-Torres–Banks final vowel is retained as an echo vowel (either a, ē, or ō) if it is lower than the preceding vowel, or both the final and preceding vowels are *a. Examples include *βula "moon" > vulō and *βanua "island" > vunuō. However, they can be syncopated phrase-medially, as in *βanua laβa "Vanua Lava" > Vunulava.

## Possession

In Veraʼa there are two types of possessive constructions recorded, that of direct possessive constructions and indirect possessive constructions.$^{:119}$ Similar to other Oceanic languages, the distinctions between directly and indirectly possessed nouns in Veraʼa appear to generally correspond to the semantic distinctions seen between inalienable and alienable possession.
In both direct and indirect possessive constructions there are a further three construction sub-types based on the expression of the possessor. The three types of possessor constructions are as follows:
* possessor as a pronoun expressed by a possessive suffix
* possessor as a personal NP
* possessor as a common noun
In order to express the possessor as a pronoun, possessive suffixes are used. Stefan Schnell reports that they “are considered pronominal in nature because they have specific, definite referents and inflect for the same categories as personal pronouns.”$^{:121}$
Possessive suffixes in Veraʼa :
| | | Singular | Dual | Trial | Plural |
| 1st person | exclusive | -k | -madu(ō) | -mamʼōl | -mam |
| 1st person | inclusive | -k | -du(ō) | | -de |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | -m | -mru(ō) | -mʼōl | -mi |
| 3rd person | 3rd person | -gi | -ru(ō) | -rʼōl | -re |

### Direct Possession

In Veraʼa, direct possession primarily expresses inalienable or inherently given relationships.$^{:121}$
These types of relationships can be seen through expression of:$^{:57–58}$
* kinship relations
* body parts
* other types of part/whole relations (often parts of plants)
* certain concepts that only occur in association with another concept (name of an entity)
* spatial relations (incl. temporal relations expressed in analogy to spatial relations)

#### Direct Possessive Construction

Direct possessive constructions consist of the possessum, that of which is being possessed, and the possessor. This structure tends to follow a possessum-possessor order. The possessum is expressed as a bound noun while the possessor can be expressed as either:$^{:121}$
* a pronoun (expressed by a possessive suffix)
* a personal NP linked to the possessum by the linking suffix -n
* as a common noun adjacently following the possessum noun
The bound noun possessum will take one of these three possessor constructions as shown below:$^{:119}$

##### (1) Direct possessive construction with a pronominal possessor

n
ART
gunu-m
spouse-2SG
n gunu-m
ART spouse-2SG
'your wife / husband'
n
ART
kolo-k
back-1SG
n kolo-k
ART back-1SG
'my back'

##### (2) Direct possessive construction with a personal NP possessor

n
ART
vono-n
home-LK
e
ART
Qo’
person.name
n vono-n e Qo’
ART home-LK ART person.name
'Qo's home'
e
ART
gunu-n
spouse-LK
e
ART
Noleen
person.name
e gunu-n e Noleen
ART spouse-LK ART person.name
'Noleen's husband'

##### (3) Direct possessive construction with a common NP possessor

ēn
ART
neln̄o-
voice-
’an̄sara
person
ēn neln̄o- ’an̄sara
ART voice- person
'voice of a person, i.e. a human voice'
ēn
ART
deln̄o-
ear-
’ama’
devil
ēn deln̄o- ’ama’
ART ear- devil
'ears of a devil / devil ears'
In summary the constructions can be described as follows:
Direct Possessive Constructions :
| Possessor type | Structure |
| (1) Pronoun | [possessum NP-possessive suffix] |
| (2) Personal NP | [possessum NP-n] + [personal NP] |
| (3) Common NP | [possessum NP] + [common NP] |

### Indirect possession

Indirect possessive constructions primarily express alienable possession, that is a possession that is more easily terminated. The possessor is not directly expressed on the possessum noun, rather the possessor is expressed on a possessive classifier. This construction results in the possessum and the possessor being less morphologically dependent on one another. Consequently, this construction allows for the possessor to appear in different positions syntactically and for the possessor to be able to form a standalone NP with the possessum NP being omitted from speech.$^{:133}$
Indirect possessive constructions are divided further into two types, labelled Indirect Possessive Construction Type 1 and Type 2 respectively. In addition to both types, indirect possessive constructions also have several different functions, those being the anaphoric/generic use of a classifier (elided NP), the adnominal recipient construction and recipient / beneficiary construction.$^{:133}$ The different functions of indirect possessive constructions are further explained in Stefan Schnell's A Grammar of Veraʼa: an Oceanic language of North Vanuatu, chapter 6.$^{:136–138}$

#### Indirect Possessive Construction

In an indirect possessive construction, the possessum is a free noun and the possessor is hosted by a possessive classifier which mediates the syntactic relation between the possessed and possessor.$^{:134}$ There are eight possessive classifiers that each express their own respective function and the types of relations that indirect possessive constructions express.
Possessive Classifiers$^{:120}$ :
| Possessive Classifier | Function |
| go- | 's.th. to eat' |
| mo- | 's.th. to drink' |
| ko- | 's.th. to use as vessel' |
| m̄o- | 's.th. use as house' |
| bolo- | 's.th. of customary value' |
| nō- | 's.th. personally owned' |
| qo- | 's.th. used to sleep, rest' |
| mu- | 's.th. owned' / other |

##### Indirect Possessive Construction Type 1

In the Indirect Possessive Construction Type 1, the possessive classifier is expressed as a bound morpheme with the possessor being expressed as either:$^{:134}$
* a possessive suffix attached to the classifier
* a personal NP linked to the possessive classifier with the -n suffix
* as a common noun adjacently following the possessive classifier.
The possessive classifier will take one of these three possessor constructions as shown below:$^{:120–121}$

###### (1) Indirect possessive construction Type 1 with a pronominal possessor

n
ART
qeʼan
ground
go-ruō
POSS.CLF-3D
n qeʼan go-ruō
ART ground POSS.CLF-3D
'their (two) ground to eat from'
n
ART
nak
canoe
ko-k
POSS.CLF-1SG
n nak ko-k
ART canoe POSS.CLF-1SG
'my knife'

###### (2) Indirect possessive construction Type 1 with a personal NP possessor

n
ART
nak
canoe
mu-n
POSS>CLF-LK
e
ART
Qo’
person.name
n nak mu-n e Qo’
ART canoe POSS>CLF-LK ART person.name
'Qo’ 's canoe'
ēn
ART
gie
kava
mo-n
POSS.CLF-LK
e
ART
’uvusm̄ēl
high.chief
ēn gie mo-n e ’uvusm̄ēl
ART kava POSS.CLF-LK ART high.chief
'the kava of the high chief (to drink)'

###### (3) Indirect possessive construction Type 1 with a common NP possessor

n
ART
gie
kava
mo
POSS.CLF
’uvusm̄ēl
high.chief
n gie mo ’uvusm̄ēl
ART kava POSS.CLF high.chief
'the kava of a high chief (to drink)'
n
ART
laklak
dance
mu
POSS.CLF
’ama’
devil
n laklak mu ’ama’
ART dance POSS.CLF devil
'a dance of ghosts / a ghost dance'
In summary the constructions are as follows:
Indirect Possessive Construction (Type 1) :
| Possessor type | Structure |
| (1) Pronoun | [possessum NP] + [possessive classifier-possessive suffix] |
| (2) Personal NP | [possessum NP] + [possessive classifier-n] + [personal NP] |
| (3) Common NP | [possessum NP] + [possessive classifier] + [common NP] |

##### Indirect Possessive Construction Type 2

In an Indirect Possessive Construction of Type 2, the possessive classifier precedes the possessed noun. The result of this, is that the possessive classifier and the possessum form a complex NP. The possessor is exclusively expressed by a pronominal possessive suffix.$^{:135–136}$

###### Indirect Possessive Construction Type 2

maranaga
chief
go-dē
POSS.CLF-1PL.INCL
=n
=ART
kēl-
bog-
bigbig
'meat'
rōwē
down.at.the.sea
maranaga go-dē =n kēl- bigbig rōwē
chief POSS.CLF-1PL.INCL =ART bog- 'meat' down.at.the.sea
'Chief, a big 'meat' for us (to eat) is down at the sea.'
In summary the construction is as follows:
Indirect Possessive Construction (Type 2) :
| Possessor type | Structure |
| (1) Pronoun | [possessive classifier-possessive suffix] + [possessum NP] |