# Kiliwa language

Kiliwa (also Kiliwi, Ko’lew or Quiligua) (in Kiliwa: Koleeu ñaja) is a Yuman language spoken in Baja California, in the far northwest of Mexico, by the Kiliwa people.
76 people reported their language as Kiliwa in a 2020 census. However, a count in 2018 found only 4 speakers remaining.

## History

The Kiliwa language was extensively studied by Mauricio J. Mixco, who published Kiliwa texts as well as a dictionary and studies of syntax.
As recently as the mid-1900s, Mixco reported that members of the native community universally spoke Kiliwa as their first language, with many Kiliwas also bilingual in Paipai. At the start of the twenty-first century, Kiliwa is still spoken; a 2000 census reported 52 speakers. However, the language is considered to be in danger of extinction.
Kiliwa is a language of the Yuman Family Language Summit, held annually since 2001.

## Classification

Kiliwa is the southernmost representative of the Yuman family, and the one that is most distinct from the remaining languages, which constitute Core Yuman. The Kiliwa's neighbors to the south, the Cochimí, spoke a language or a family of languages that was probably closely related to but not within the Yuman family. Consequently, the Kiliwa lie at the historic "center of gravity" for the differentiation of Yuman from Cochimí and of the Yuman branches from each other.
Linguistic prehistorians are not in agreement as to whether the Kiliwa's linguistic ancestors are most likely to have migrated into the Baja California peninsula from the north separately from the ancestors of the Cochimí and the Core Yumans, or whether they became differentiated from those groups in place. The controversial technique of glottochronology suggests that the separation of Kiliwa from Core Yuman may have occurred about 2,000-3,000 years ago.

## Phonology
### Consonants

| | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | Glottal |
| | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | plain | lab. | Uvular | plain | lab. |
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | | | | | |
| Stop/Affricate | p | t | tʃ | k | kʷ | q | ʔ | |
| Fricative | | s | | x | xʷ | | h | hʷ |
| Rhotic | | r | | | | | | |
| Approximant | | l | j | | w | | | |
Intervocalic allophones of /p, t, k, kʷ/ can occur as [β, ð, ɣ, ɣʷ]. An approximant sound such as /j/ after a glottal /h/ can become devoiced as [j̊], as with a devoiced [ʍ] sound being an allophone of /hʷ/.

### Vowels

There are three vowel quantities; /i, u, a/, that can also be distinguished with vowel length /iː, uː, aː/. Close vowel sounds /i, u/ can range to mid vowel sounds as [e, o], and with vowel length as [eː, oː]. An epenthetic schwa sound [ə] can occur within root-initial consonant clusters.

### Pitch accent

Kiliwa has three pitch accents, those being high-level, high-falling, and low level.

## Orthography
### Alphabet

The Kiliwa language is written using a modified Roman alphabet, as the language's culture has historically been unwritten and entirely oral. It consists of 15 consonants which includes 3 digraphs: ⟨b⟩, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨h⟩, ⟨hh⟩, ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨nh⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨y⟩.
Alphabet :
| Letter | Phoneme | Kiliwa examples | English translation |
| b | /b/ | A'bobuin Ábel | Which? Where? |
| ch | /t͡ʃ/ | Chiin Jcheet | Laugh Steal |
| g | /g/ | Mugaw Msig | Flour One |
| h | /h/ | Ha' Haa | Mouth Yes |
| k | /k/ | Jaq Kujat | Bone Blood |
| l | /l/ | Lepee Msigl paayp | Liver Six |
| m | /m/ | Meyaal Smak | Tortilla Leaf |
| n | /n/ | Nay Mpaan | Kid Sister |
| ny | /ɲ/ | Nhieeg Jnhieel | Black Lariat |
| p | /p/ | Pa Gap | Stomach Pain |
| s | /s/ | Smaa Kiis | Sleep Large |
| t | /t/ | Tmaa Mat | Eat No |
| w | /w/ | Kuwaa | Sit |
| y | /j/ | Yiit Tay | Seed Big |
| ' | /ʔ/ | Jo’on Msi' | Very Star |
There are also 5 short and 5 long vowels: /a/, /aː/, /e/, /eː/, /i/, /iː/, /o/, /oː/ , /u/, and /uː/. These are represented in the chart below.
Vowels :
| Vowels | IPA | Kiliwa Examples | English Translation |
| a | /a/ | Ábel Tay | Where Big |
| aa | /aː/ | Jaa Maaw Yaaywaa | To go Grandma scorpion |
| e | /e/ | Enhoop Pel wat Miy pi jse | Fight To return Quill |
| ee | /eː/ | Eel Teey Juwee | Sore Night To give |
| i | /i/ | Ipaa Kaichmaa Kemelootí | People Money/metal/iron |
| ii | /iː/ | Yiit Chiin Tiingkiil | Seed Laughter mockingbird |
| o | /o/ | Kotip Jsilo | Heart Hole |
| oo | /oː/ | Enhoop Kekoo | Fight/ To struggle Woman |
| u | /u/ | Ujaa Ku'nip | Look after/look out for Poor |
| uu | /uː/ | Uusmaat Piyauup Kuu | Sleep To carry/load Grandpa (maternal) |
Other digraphs used in the Kiliwa language include: gu, hu, and ku. They are shown in the chart below.
| Digraphs | Phoneme | Kiliwa Examples | English Translation |
| gu | /ɡʷ/ | Pagu Hkuigu | Rabbit Hunt |
| hu | /hʷ/ | P’huh'k’ ii Mphuh-mi | Thud This box/bag |
| hu | /hʷ/ | Huwaa u Ju sawi | Seat Clean |
| ku | /kʷ/ | Hkuigu Tukuipaai | To hunt Animal |
The inclusion of / , / is used as a brief pause, such as that in Spanish.

### Numbers

Numbers in Kiliwa can be expressed up to several thousands without the use of Spanish loanwords. Counting is done using both fingers and toes. There is a resemblance of the Kiliwa word ‘sal’ which is the root for ‘finger/hand’.
| Number | Kiliwa | English translation |
| 1 | Msig | One |
| 2 | Juwak | Two |
| 3 | Jmi'k | Three |
| 4 | Mnak | Four |
| 5 | Salchipam | Five |
| 6 | Msigl paayp | Six |
| 7 | Juwakl paayp | Seven |
| 8 | Jmi'kl paayp | Eight |
| 9 | Msig tkmat | Nine |
| 10 | Chipam msig | Ten |
The following numbers are formed by using the form for the ten's place 'chipam' followed by its multiplier digit (the digits of those listed above from 1-9).
| Number | Kiliwa | English translation |
| 10 | Chipam msig | Ten |
| 20 | Chipam juwak | Twenty |
| 30 | Chipam jmi'k | Thirty |
| 40 | Chipam mnak | Forty |
| 50 | Chipam salchipam | Fifty |
| 60 | Chipam msigl paayp | Sixty |
| 70 | Chipam juwakl paayp | Seventy |
| 80 | Chipam jmi'kl paayp | Eighty |
| 90 | Chipam msig tkmat | Ninety |
The hundreds are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam’ followed by the multiplier digits found in that of numbers 1-9.
| Number | Kiliwa | English translation |
| 100 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msig | One hundred |
| 200 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwak | Two hundred |
| 300 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi'k | Three hundred |
| 400 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam mnak | Four hundred |
| 500 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam salchipam | Five hundred |
| 600 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msigl paayp | Six hundred |
| 700 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwakl paayp | Seven hundred |
| 800 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi'kl paayp | Eight hundred |
| 900 | Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msig tkmat | Nine hundred |
Lastly, the thousands are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kuetet’ before using the multiplier digits once again.
| Number | Kiliwa | English Translation |
| 1,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet msig | One thousand |
| 2,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet juwak | Two thousand |
| 3,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet hmi'k | Three thousand |
| 4,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet mnak | Four thousand |
| 5,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet salchipam | Five thousand |
| 6,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet msigl paayp | Six thousand |
| 7,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet juwakl paayp | Seven thousand |
| 8,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet jmi'kl paayp | Eight thousand |
| 9,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet msig tkmat | Nine thousand |
| 10,000 | Chipam msig u’ kuetet cipam msig | Ten thousand |

## Morphology

The morphology in the Kiliwa language consists of many affixes and clitics. More of these are available on the verb rather than the noun. These affixes are usually untouched and added on to a modified root.

### Singular and plurals

In Kiliwa there are multiple ways of pluralizing words. There are several to differentiate it from the singular form. The most common affixes are t, chau, m, u and si’waa.
| Singular | Plural | Language |
| This Mi | These Mit | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Sit Kuwaa | All of you sit Kuwaat | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Come! Kiyee | All of you come Kitiyee | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Want Unyieey | We want Unyieey chau | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Owl Ojoo | Owls Ojoo chau | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Hill Weey | Hills Uweey | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Coyote Mlti’ | Coyotes Mlti’ si’waa | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Eye Yuu | Eyes Yuum | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
There are also some instances in which the plural form changes the vowels, for example: Kill! (Kinyii); Kill them! (Kenyoot); Grab! (Kiyuu); Grab them! (Kiyeewi); Stand! (Ku'um); All of you stand! (Ke'ewi).

### Adverbs

Used in adjectives or nouns to denote a superlative degree of meaning.
Examples:
| Good/better | Mgaai maai |
| Dwarf | Nmoohh maai |
| Heavy | Mechaa maai |
| Injured | Tgap maai |
| Horrible | Hhchool maai |
Other adverbs include: Mgaai (better), Mak (here), Paak (there), Psap mi (today), Hhchoom (yesterday), Kiis i'bm (later), Mat pi’im kun (never)
Examples:
| Is better | Mgaai gap |
| She is the best | Paa mgaai gap eto |
| He is better than me | Paa mgaai gap nhal im mat |
| There is no one here | Mak ma'ali uma |
| Get out of here | Mak kpaam |
| Come here | Mak kiyee |
| There it is | Paak kuwaa |
| The car passed by there | Owa' kose'hhin e' mil pahhkaai tomat |
| Stand right there | Paa ku'u' kiyuu |
| I can't today | Psap mi ahhaa mat semioo |
| My mom will come today | Psap mi nhab nh'oo puhhaa |
| The party is today | Enhiaai yiima’ u’ enhiaai mim |
| It rained a lot yesterday | Hhchoom hhu'hhak maai |
| My dad left yesterday | Nhab s’oot hhchoom kupaa tomat |
| I went to the beach yesterday | Hhchoom hha' tayel ahhaa |
| I’ll see you later | Kiis i’bm maat psaawi |
| I’ll never visit you | Mat pi’im kun mil waal ahhaa mat |
| Why don’t you ever come? | Piyim mat pi’im miyee mat mi o' |
| Why don’t you ever visit me? | Mat pi’im kun pinhee mi mat i' |

### Adjectives

-Tay: something of a big/great size for animals and objects or someone obtains a higher power/status due to profession.
Examples:
| Big head | 'Ii tay |
| Big nose | Pi' tay |
| Big dog | Tat tay |
| Attorney | Ha' kumaag tay |
| Architect | Uwa' kosay tay |
| Painter | Tukujaay tay |
Suffix P is used to signify something of a smaller degree for several adjectives.
Examples:
| Wet | Ja'al |
| Somewhat wet | Ja'alp |
| Dark | Teey |
| Somewhat dark | Teeyp |
| Black | Nyieeg |
| Somewhat black | Nyieegp |
| Skinny | Jo'on |
| Somewhat skinny | Jo'onp |
| Dry | S'aay |
| Somewhat dry | S’aayp |

### Conjunctions

Conjunctions are connect two or more ideas into a single sentence.There are also disjunctive conjunctions to separate two or more mutually exclusive options presented in a sentence.
Examples: /and/ translates in Kiliwa to e.
| Juan and Pedro | Juan e Pedro e |
| Water and salt | Ja' e kuii e |
| Dog and cat | Tat e nmi’ e |
| You and I | Ma’p e nyaap |
| Chair and table | Juwaa u’ e tmaa tay u’ |

### Verbs

* Verbs are more complicated than nouns in Kiliwa language
* There are more verb prefixes present, and fewer suffixes and infixes
* The prefixes demonstrate more structure within the grammar

#### Conjugation

The conjugation allows us to tell what the action is doing and taking place in the verb
* Example in Kiliwa: Conjugation of Verb Tmaa (eat)

#### Past and present
##### Present

Source:
| I eat | Nhaap tmaa |
| You eat | Ma'p tma-maa |
| He/She eats | Nhipaa tmaa |
| We eat | Panhaap tmaa |
| They eat | Nhipaat tmaa-t |

##### Past

Source:
| I ate | Nhaap kuiil tmaa |
| You ate | Ma'p kuiil tmamaa |
| He/She ate | Nhipaa kuiil tmaa |
| We ate | Panhaap kuiil tmaat chau |
| They ate | Nhipaat kuiil tmaat chau |

##### Future

Source:
| I will eat | Nhaap tmaa seti' uma' |
| You will eat | Ma'p tmamaa seti' uma' |
| He/She will eat | Nhipaa tmaa seti' uma' |
| We will eat | Panhaap tmaat chaut seti' uma' |
| They will eat | Nhipaat tmaat chaut seti' uma' |

### Nouns

In the Kiliwa language they are marked by the definite and indefinite
| Definite | Indefinite |
| -hi (singular) | -si(singular) |

#### Determiner NP

Kiliwa has 3 degrees of distance that appear in the third person pronoun
Examples:
| -mi | “This” (near speaker) |
| -paa | “That” (near hearer) |
| -nyaa | “That” (far from both) |

#### Demonstrative NP

Kiliwa language is also measured in the independent third-person pronoun in the demonstrative Np
Examples:
Mi-chau → ‘these;they’ → (near speaker)
paa-chau → ‘those;they → (near hearer)
nyaa-chau → “those;they → (far from both)
mi-t cham ‘This/(s)he leaves (it)’
mi-chau-t caam-u → ‘These/they leave (it)’
m '-saau ‘I see this one/him/her’
mi-chau=m=juak-m ʔ-cam → ‘I leave with these/them’
mi-chau-l '-saau ‘I looked into these one/them’

### Gender markers

When referring to a male human or animal one adds kumeei
When referring to a female human or animal one adds kökoo

#### Axis

Example: kumeei is male and kökoo is female
| Dog | Tat |
| (Female) dog | Tat kökoo |
| (Male) dog | Tat kumeei |
| Cow / Bull | Hhak |
| Cow | Hhak kökoo |
| Bull | Hhak kumeei |

## Syntax

Kiliwa is a verb-final language that usually follows the order subject-object-verb. Dependent object clause should be found before the verb, whereas relative or adjectival clauses appear following the noun they modify. While behavioral context, negations, auxiliaries, etc. can alter the placement of certain aspects, the Object-Verb form remains true in most sentences.
Example of transitive sentence in which the structure is simply object-verb:
This one/he/she eats/ate coyotes. :
| Kiliwa | Subject | Object | Verb |
| mit melti’caum pahmaa | this one - mit | coyotes - melti’caum | eats/ate - pahmaa |
Sentences with a negation typically contain the object-verb format, however, basic structure would be subject - pre-verb negative - object - verb - final negative. Example:
This man did not shoot that dog :
| Kiliwa | Subject | Pre-verb Neg. | Object-Verb | Final Neg. |
| kuumiimit kuat tatpaam hkkaa mat | This man - kuumiimit | did not - kuat | shoot (that) dog - tatpaam (that dog) hkkaa (shoot) | mat |

## Toponyms

The following Kiliwa toponyms are from the map given in Mixco (2000:70).

### Settlements

* Ja' Kupan /xaʔ kupan/ - Agua Caliente
* Jpi' Kunaan /xpiʔ kuna:n/ - San Isidro
* Mjuaa /mxʷa:/ - Los Coches
* Pnyil /pɲil/ - Santo Domingo
* Ku'ii Yuwu /kuʔi: yuwuʔ/ - San Quintin
* Juiim Ja' /xʷi:m haʔ/ - San Felipe
* Ipaa Cha'amui /ipa: t͡ʃaʔamʷi/ - Tijuana
* Jua Nyimaat /xʷa: ɲima:t/ - Mexicali
* Ja'Tay Juatu' /xaʔtaj xʷatuʔ/ - Ensenada
* Yuul Mat /ju:l mat/ - Santa Catarina

### Natural features

* Ku'ii Yaku' /kuʔiː yakuʔ/ - Salinas
* Hiil /hi:l/- Cañón de la Esperanza
* Hyaau /hʲa:w/ - San Matías Pass
* Kumsalp /kumsalp/ - Colnett Point

### Mountains

* Mou Weey /mow we:j/ - Cerro Borrego
* Nyaay Weey /ɲa:j we:j/ - peak just to the south of Cerro Borrego
* Mou Wa' Weey /mow waʔ we:j/ - Cerro Salvatierra
* Kaay Spkuin /ka:j spkʷin/ - peak just to the south of Cerro Salvatierra
* Mt Waay Walu Weey /mt wa:j walu we:j/ - Picacho de Diablo
* Jaal Jak /xa:l xak/ - Sierra de San Pedro Martir
* Kunyil Weey /kuɲil we:j/ - Cerro Colorado

### Bodies of water

* Ja'tay /xaʔtaj/ - Pacific Ocean
* Chuwílo Tay /t͡ʃuwilo taj/ - Arroyo Grande
* Mat Pchuj /mat pt͡ʃux/ - San José Creek
* Msuan /msʷan/ - San Telmo Creek
* Jmil /xmil/ - San Rafael River
* Ja' Hiil /xaʔ hi:l/ - Colorado River